Argumentation 议论文特征.docx

1、Argumentation 议论文特征Argumentation Aims：1 Knowing to define the term,2 Comparing this style of writing with exposition, description, and narration3 Knowing requirements of a GOOD argumentative essay 4 Knowing how to outline an augmentative essay: three parts.Procedure: （theory-practice）The purpose of

2、exposition is to inform; the purpose of argumentation, on the other hand, is to convince. While an expository paper makes known something and explains it to make the reader understand, an argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and support it, to persuade him to cha

3、nge his mind or behavior, and to approve a policy or a course of action that it proposes. Speeches on policies, editorials of newspapers, articles on political or theoretical questions, and various proposals are often argumentative.Argumentation frequently makes use of the other three types of writi

4、ng - description, narration, and above all exposition, for argumentation and exposition are very closely related - argumentation is actually exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading.Although they can take different shapes, argumentative essays have certain basic features in

5、 common. If you wish to write a good argumentative essay, you should do your best to meet the following requirements:(1) A debatable pointIt is imperative that the paper should have a debatable point, that is, something which can be viewed from more than one angle and is therefore open to dispute. G

6、enerally speaking, the following are not good themes.1) Mere statements of facts “Chinese doctors use acupuncture anesthesia to perform certain operations” is a fact that cannot be debated. But if it is changed into “acupuncture anesthesia should replace conventional anesthesia in all operations”, i

7、t becomes debatable.2) Statements of personal preference“Ba Jin is my favorite author” expresses personal preference which does not lead to dispute. But a statement like “Ba Jin is the greatest Chinese writer of the 20th century” is disputable and sufficient evidence should be provided.3) Viewpoints

8、 that are generally accepted or can be easily verifiedIt is universally known that “noise pollution is harmful to peoples health”, but it is not generally accepted that “noise pollution is the most harmful of all environmental pollution”. The former viewpoint can be proved, but the later is arguable

9、.(2) Sufficient evidenceSince the point of your paper is not a fact, a statement of personal taste, or a viewpoint universally accepted, you will have to provide sufficient evidence to convince the reader. Sufficient evidence includes common knowledge; specific examples; hard, not soft, evidence, or

10、 facts, not opinions, unless the opinions are expert and authoritative; statistics; and quotations from authorities. Valid evidence is that which is clearly and directly connected with the point to be proved.(3) Good logicIt is obvious that good logic is even more important to argumentation than to

11、any other types of writing. All the facts and reasons that are given as evidence should be logically connected with the conclusion and with each other. Any fallacy in logic or wrong step in reasoning would leave the reader in doubt about the whole argument.There are generally two ways of reasoning:1

12、) Inductive reasoning (from specific facts to a general conclusion) Inductive reasoning is the more common way. When you use induction, you start with facts and proceed from facts to a general conclusion. In other words, you move from specific examples to a general statement.2) Deductive reasoning (

13、from a general statement to a specific conclusion)The process is just the opposite of inductive reasoning - it moves from a general statement to a specific conclusion. It works on the model of syllogism - a three-part argument in which there are two statements, known as the major premise and the min

14、or premise, and a conclusion.Here is an example of a syllogism:A. All human beings make mistakes. (a general statement)B. X is a human being.C. Therefore, X makes mistakes. (a specific conclusion)From the above example we can see that the major premise must be an accepted generalization, and the min

15、or, a factual example of that generalization. If A and B are true, C, the conclusion, is bound to be true.You must be very careful about your premises, especially your major premise, such statements as “all students love to study” and “women are more imaginative than men” are not generally accepted,

16、 and therefore cannot be used as major premises.(4) Clear logicA typical argumentative essay consists of three parts: an introduction which identifies the issue to be discussed and explains the importance of such a discussion; a body which presents the evidence; and a conclusion in which the proposi

17、tion, if it is stated at the beginning, is reaffirmed.In the body, it is advisable that you devote the first one or two paragraphs to a consideration of the other side of the case before stating and amplifying your own views. Then in each paragraph that follows, you add something new and important t

18、o your argument. The evidence you provide should be arrangedA. from the least important to the most important,B. from the most familiar to the least familiar, andC. from the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most difficult.(5) Good use of the other three types of writing - description, narratio

19、n, and especially the various methods of exposition(6) An honest and friendly attitudeTo argue is not to quarrel or fight. The force of an argument does not come from abuse, sarcasm, exaggeration, or fierce attack, but from solid evidence, logical reasoning, and careful analysis. A domineering or ho

20、stile tone could only raise doubts about your good faith and impair the credibility of your argument, whereas an honest and friendly attitude will help win the trust of your readers.Take care that you neither overstate or understate, and avoid overuse of such words and phrases as “perhaps”, “maybe”,

21、 “sometimes”, “more often”, “nearly always”, “I think”, or “in my opinion”, which invariably weaken the force of your argument.ModelsThe Harmful Effects of the Multiple-Choice TestThe multiple-choice test is a common examination form that is widely used as a standard international testing method in

22、various academic fields, especially in language testing. Some educators and teachers embrace it as a most scientific test form for its objectivity, accuracy and high efficiency of grading test papers. However, after many years of application, investigation and research, other teachers and educators

23、have admitted that to judge students real and practical abilities, such testing method has many limitations and drawbacks. In my opinion, for all its efficiency, objectivity and validity, the multiple-choice test should not be widely used for the examinations of academic courses on campus.Those who

24、argue for the advantages of the multiple-choice test believe that such tests can greatly improve the accuracy and speed of test paper grading. The standardized answer sheets of such test make it possible for computers to replace men to grade the papers. Undoubtedly, the computerization of test paper

25、 grading not only improve the speed of grading test papers, but also eliminates the subjective factors of bias or preference that can not be totally avoided by those who grade them. Here, computers or electronic devices are considered as the norm for scientific testing method. It may be safe to chec

26、k manufactured products by electronic devices for their qualities. Yet, to check the real abilities and potentials of complex human beings, such devices and such testing method are far from enough. In fact, many problems from such testing do exist.First of all, it is convenient for students to cheat

27、 in the multiple-choice test. The standardization of answer sheets makes it easier for students to plagiarize others answers. The choices of A. B. C. D. are most clearly printed on the answer sheets or test papers. With only a quick glance, any student who attempts to cheat in the exam can surely st

28、eal the correct choice from whoever is nearby and whoever is considered as a good student. Whats more, some students may have some secret deal among themselves in the exam, delivering generous service to the needed. In this case, even when they are separated from each other with considerable distanc

29、e by the proctor/invigilator, they can still succeed. The proctor may feel quite helpless because even though they sometimes see or feel students cheating, they cannot pinpoint or prove how the students are cheating in the exam. This in a way encourages the students misconduct and leads to their eth

30、ical degradation.Secondly, the multiple-choice test is often like a gambling. Doing well in such an exam is in some way becoming a matter of chance. According to the law of probability, if a question has four choices, then the probability of the right answer will be as high as 25%. Even is a person,

31、 absolutely ignorant of knowledge of that subject, take part in the multiple-choice test, he will have 25% chances of getting the right answer, just by guess. Because of this characteristic, some students attitude and attention to study may be quite misled and their capability and flexibility may be

32、 weakened. For example, we used to answer the multiple-choice tests at middle schools. When we come to college and face a problem of answering various questions in more details by writing or by speaking, we are at a loss, not to mention our difficulty in writing English compositions.Thirdly, the multiple-choice test fails to evaluate the students abilities thoroughly, especially their potential abilities. Owing to the nature of such a test form, the four letters on the answer sheet cannot reveal the thought process of the students who take the exams. We all know that thoug