当代语言学导论复习要点详细含课后单词.docx

当代语言学导论复习要点详细含课后单词.docx

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当代语言学导论复习要点详细含课后单词

IntroductiontoContemporaryLinguistics

Chapter1

Humansuperiorityliesinhisuniqueendowment-----theabilitytotalk,orrather,tocommunicatebymeansoflanguage.

Talmud:

godcreatedtheworldbyaword,instantaneously,withouttoilorpains.

Widdowson:

theprimacyoflanguageinthewayhumanbeingsconceiveoftheworld.

Languageisavehicleofpower,forcontrol,forcreation,andforchange.

Thestudyofhumanlanguageiscalledlinguistics.

Linguisticsdealswithhumanlanguageasawholeorasparticularlanguages.

1.Asawhole:

thesystemofhumancommunicationwhichconsistsofthestructuredarrangementofsounds（ortheirwrittenrepresentation）intolargerunits,e.g.morphemes,words,sentences,utterances.

2.Asparticularlanguage:

likeFrenchlanguage,theyareparticularsystemsofhumancommunicationusedbypeoplelivingindifferentpartsoftheworld.

Thereisacontinuumfromonelanguagetoanother.

Varietiesoflanguage:

Anyparticularlanguageisinessenceasetofvarieties.

1.localvarieties区域变体–dialectsandaccents（theformerdifferfromeachotherinpronunciation,vocabulary,andevengrammar;thelatteronlyinpronunciation）

2.socialvarieties—sociolects社会方言（=socialdialects,usedbypeopleofdifferentclasses,ages,orsexes）,

3.historicalvarieties—temporalvariety.（e.g.the17thcenturyEnglish）

4.stylisticoroccupationalvarieties---registers语域（e.g.formalEnglish,scientificEnglish）

5.individualvarieties—idiolects个人语言.

6.Usuallyalanguagehasanofficiallydeclaredorgenerallyconsideredstandarddialect（e.g.PutonghuainChina,GeneralAmericanintheUS）

FromPrescriptivismtoDescriptivism

Prescriptivismistheviewthatonevarietyoflanguagehasaninherentlyhighervaluethanothers.（trytoimposerulesfromsomehighprestigelanguagetosomelowerprestigelanguage,likeLatinandEnglish）

Descriptivismisthepolicyofdescribinglanguagesastheyareboundtoexist.Usagesofdifferentvarietiesshouldbeobservedandrecordedinsteadofbeingjudgedwithsomeimposednorms.

Endowedorconventional?

Plato’sproblem:

Howcaneveryhumanbeingdeveloparichsystemoflinguisticknowledgeonthebasisoflimitedandfragmentaryempiricalevidence?

Sideofendowment:

nativists（天生论）ormentalists（心智说）

Plato:

1.Man’sknowledgecamefromuniversaltruths.

2.Therewasauniversallycorrectandacceptablelogicoflanguageformantofollowinexpressinghisideas.

3.Knowledgeoflanguagewasnotlearnedbutrecalled.

Chomsky:

Thereisabiological,physiologicalentityinsideourbrainwhichdecideswhatwespeak.

Chomskyhasgivenanametothisentity----UG,oruniversalgrammar.Hisepistemologyoftheknowledgeoflanguagefoesasfollows:

1.Everyhumanbeinghasthelanguagecompetence能力,becausehehastheinbornUGwhichotherspecieslack.

2.UGistheinitialstateofthehumanlanguagefaculty语言器官/机制whichalonecannotenableahumanbabytospeak.Ababyneedstobeexposedtothelinguisticenvironmentofacertainlanguageandaccumulateexperience.

3.Duetotheeffectoflaterexperience,thebaby’sminddevelopsfromtheinitialstateintothesteadystate,whichcorrespondstothecompetenceofspeakingaspecifichumanlanguage.

Sideofconvention:

behavioristorempiricists

Aristotle:

knowledgeoflanguagewasarrivedatbyconventionandagreementofthespeakersofagivenlanguage.

Xunzi:

anamewasacceptedthroughpublicagreement,andtheappropriatenessofnamingathinglayinconvention.

Thepoweroflanguageexistsinitscountlessvarieties,notrelyingonanyuniversalstandard.

Connectionism

Diachronic（历经时间的）:

focusonthecomparisonbetweenlanguagesandtheexplorationofthehistoricalchangeandvariationofsomeancientlanguages./of,relatingto,ordealingwithphenomena（asoflanguageorculture）astheyoccurorchangeoveraperiodoftime

Synchronic（共时的）:

researchofthefactsoflanguageagreeduponorsharedbyhismembersoflanguagecommunityatagivenpointintime./concernedwitheventsexistinginalimitedtimeperiodandignoringhistoricalantecedents

Glossary

Endowments:

（天赋）thenaturalqualitythatapersonismaderichoffromthebirth.

Register:

（语域）thewords,style,andgrammarusedbyspeakersandwritersinparticularconditions,namelyasociallydefinedvarietyoflanguage.

Idiolect:

（个人语言）thelinguisticsystemofanindividualspeaker.

Sociolect:

（社会方言）alsosocialdialect.Varietyofalanguagedefinedbysocialfactorssuchasage,religion,ethnicity,orsocioeconomicstatus.Sociolectsmaybeclassedashighorlow（instatus）.

Prescriptivism:

（规定主义）theimpositionofarbitrarynormsuponalanguage,oftenindefianceofnormalusage.

Descriptivism：

（描写主义）thepolicyofdescribinglanguagesastheyareboundtoexist.

Nativism:

（天生论）philosophicalandpsychologicalpositionwhichholdsthatcognitivedevelopmentofhumansarisesfrom“innateideas”.Thenativistpositionhasbeenusedtoexplainhowchildrenareabletolearnlanguageandcontrastswiththebeliefthatallhumanknowledgecomesfromexperience（empiricism）.

Mentalism:

（心智说）psychologicalandphilosophicalconceptpickedupanddevelopedbyChomsky（1965）,whichattemptstodescribetheinternal（innate）languagemechanismthatprovidesthebasisforthecreativeaspectoflanguagedevelopmentanduse.

Dualism:

（二元论）aphilosophicalsystemthatrecognizestwoultimateandindependentprinciplesintheschemeofthings,suchasmindandmatter.

Monism:

（一元论）ageneralnameforthosephilosophicaltheorieswhichdenythedualityofmatterandmind.

UniversalGrammar（UG）:

（普通语法）thegeneticallyendowedinformationconsistingofprinciplesandparametersthatenablethechildtodeduceagrammarfromtheprimarylinguisticdata.

Languagecompetence:

（语言能力）knowledgeoflanguage;thelinguisticcapacityofafluentspeakerofalanguage.

Parameter:

（参数）adimensionofgrammaticalvariationbetweendifferentlanguagesordifferentvarietiesofthesamelanguage.

Empiricism:

（经验论）philosophicalandpsychologicalpositionwhichholdsthatthepsychologicaldevelopmentofhumansariseprimarilyfromexperienceandlearning.

Connectionism:

（连通主义）atheoryofcognitionwhichdrawsinspirationfromthewaythebillionsofneuronsinthebrainareinterconnectedincomplexwaystoproduceanetworkofassociations.Itholdsthatthecomplexityoflanguageemergesfromassociativelearningprocessesbeingexposedtoamassiveandcomplexenvironment.

Chapter2

Speculations:

originoflanguage

Plato----legislator

Herder----god

Universalharmonyisembracedasthefoundationofmodernlinguisticsasascience.

Galileanthesis----natureisperfect

Observation

Research

Everyperson’slexicalknowledgeofhisfirstlanguageistacitandnatural,withatendencytoinfluence,oftenunknowingly,hissecondlanguagelearning.Thisinfluenceiscalledtransfer.

Threeadequacies:

1.Observationaladequacy

2.Descriptiveadequacy

3.Explanatoryadequacy（providingadescriptivelyadequategrammarforeverynaturallanguage,anddoessointermsofmaximallyconstrainedsetofuniversalprincipleswhichrepresentpsychologicallyplausiblenaturalprinciplesofmentalcomputation.）

Testing

Atheoryinsciencemustnotbepurespeculationbuttestableatobservational,descriptive,andexplanatorylevels.

Sciencetellsusthatnatureisaphysicalcontinuum连续体,whichdoesnotbreakitselfintophysics,chemistry,psychology,linguistics…;thesedisciplines学科arenotfactsbutourdecisions.

Glossary

L1:

（第一语言）aperson’sfirstlanguage

L2:

（第二语言）aperson’ssecondlanguage.Tobemorespecific,onecouldrefertoaperson’sL3,L4,andsoon.However,thegeneraltermL2isfrequentlyusedtorefertoanylanguagelearningorusedafterthefirstlanguagehasbeenlearned.

Fossilization:

（僵化）incompleteL2acquisitionfeaturedbythefactthatprogressinacertainaspectofthetargetlanguagestopsandthelearner’slanguagebecomesfixedatanintermediatestate.Itcantakeanumberofforms,suchasfossilizedaccentorsyntax.Fossilizationcanbeapermanentfeatureofthelearner’slanguage.

Chapter3phonetics

Phonetics:

thescienceofspeechsounds.Itaimstoprovidethesetoffeaturesorpropertiesthatcanbeusedtodescribeanddistinguishallthesoundsusedinhumanlanguage.

Inaccordancewiththethreephasesjustmentioned,phoneticsisdividedintothreesub-fields.

1.Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学studiesspeechproductionbythespeechorgans;

2.Acousticphonetics声学语音学studiesphysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundstravelfromthespeakertothehearer;

3.Auditoryphonetics听觉语音学studiestheperceptionofspeechsoundsinthehumanauditoryandcognitivesystem.

IPA:

InternationalPhoneticAlphabet

ThedesignprinciplesofIPAwerethatthereshouldbeaseparateletterforeachdistinctivesound,andthatthesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.

A“sound”peoplesaytheyproduceisactuallyacombinationofsoundscalledasyllable,whichisoftenrelatedtoachestpulse.（syllable>=sound）

Thepropertiesoftheseseparatesounds,orsegmentsinphonetician’sjargon,canbedescribedinseveraldimensions,theplaceofarticulationandthemannerofarticulation.

1.Theplaceofarticulationreferstothepointinthevocaltractatwhichthemainclosureornarrowingismadesoastomodifytheflowofairfromthechesttothemouthinproducingasound.

2.Themannerofarticulationreferstothetypeofconstriction收缩ormovementthatoccursatanyplaceofarticulation.

Articulation

Theproductionofdifferentspeechsoundsthroughtheuseoftheseorgansisknownas