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市场营销学外文翻译外文文献英文文献市场营销
Marketing
(From:
SunKunofAccountingEnglish,2008.)
Marketingisagroupofinterrelatedactivitiesdesignedtoidentifyconsumerneedsandtodevelop,distribute,promote,andpricegoodsandservicestosatisfytheseneedsataprofit.Whetheranorganizationislargeorsmall,whetheritproducesaproductorprovidesaservice,itslong-rangefutureislinkedtosuccessfulmarktingpractices.
Theoldsaying"Buildabettermousetrapandtheworldwillbeatapathtoyourdoor"isnottrue."They"mustneedtheproduct,knowaboutit,beabletogetitwhenandwheretheywantit,andbeabletoaffordit.Marketingprovidesthemeanstomaketheorganizationsuccessfulinthelongrun.
1.TheMarketingConcept
Marketingwasunheardofintheearly1900s.Thisperiodcanbestbedescribedasonewherefarmorepeopleneededconsumergoodsthancompanieswereabletomanufacture.Thisintensedemandonmanufacturingledtoorganizationsdominatedbyproductionmanagement.Companieshadaproductionorientation:
wherethenumberonepriorityistoproduceagoodtokeepupwithdemand.Allenergiesandtalentswerelacedintheproductionfunction.Sellingagoodwasincidental;determiningconsumerneedswasunheardof.
Asmanufacturersincreasedtheirproductioncapabilities,thesupplyofgoodsavailableincreasedandinventoriesofgoodsdeveloped.Anemphasisonsellingoccurred.Thisneedtosellledtoasales-dominatedcompany-asalesorientation,wherebytheenergyofthecompanyisfocusedonsellingtheproductsproduced.Thesalespersio'sjob:
(1)tomakethedesiresoftheconsumers"fit"theproductsthecompanymanufacturesand
(2)toconvincetheconsumertobuy.Thecompany'sgoal:
to"sendtheoutfullandbringitbackempty."
Asmoreproducersbegancompetingforconsumerdollarsbymakingsuchhigh-demandproductsasautomobiles,vacuumcleaners,andrefrigerators,thesupplyofgoodsbegantoexceedthedemand.Companieshadtofindawaytoidentifyconsumerdemand.
Companyprofits.
Companiesthataremarketingorientedhaveadoptedaphilosophyforthefirmknownasthemarketingconcept.Themarketingconceptisabeliefthatthecompanyshouldadoptacompanywideconsumerorientationdirectedatlong-rangeprofitability.Itincludesthebeliedthatalleffortsoftheorganizationshouldbedirectedatidentifyingandsatisfying
ProductionOrientation
Companieswereessentiallyproduction-orientedfromthelatterpartofthenineteenthcenturytoabout1920.Emphasiswasplacedonfillingthedemandforbasiccommodities.Thetypicalfamilyhadlittlediscretionaryincomeandtherewaslittledemandforproductsnotassociatedwithfillingthosebasicfamilyrequirements.Demandwasusuallysuppliedbytheproducer'sperceptionofwhatconsumersneeded.Productdesignandproductlinedecisionswereheavilyinfluencedbymanufacturingconsiderations.Managementattentionwasdirectedprimarilytoimprovingproductionmethods,increasingoutput,andloweringcosts.
SalesOrientation
Theperiodofsalesorientationcoveredroughlytheyearsfrom1920to1950.WiththeexceptionoftheyearsoftheGratDepression,thisperiodwascharacterizedbygraduallyrisingdiscretionaryincome,emergingdemandforproducts,increasingcompetition,andtheexpansionofdistributionchannels.
Althoughproductdecisionscontinuedtobedominatedbywhatthemanufacturingdepartmentwantedtomake,theroleofsalesbecameincreasinglyimportant.Withtheproductiondepartmentcapableoftuningoutincreasingquantitiesofgoodsthroughmassproductiontechniques,companysuccessbegantoturnontheabilityofthesalesforcetomoveinventories.
MarketOrientation
Coveringtheyearsfromabout1950to1970,thisperiodwascharacterizedbyacontinuingshiftinbusinessemphasistounderstandingandreactingtochangingmarkets.ThedramaticriseinconsumerdiscretionaryincomefollowingWorldWarIIcreateddemandfornewproductsandservices.Themobilityprovidedbymassownershipofautomobilesencouragedthedevelopmentofsuburbs,newshoppingpatterns,andchangesindistributionmethods.Marketsbecamemoresegmentedandmorecomplex.Productlifecyclesshortened.
Withtheseconditions,productionpeoplenolongerwereinapositiontodetermineaccuratelywhatwouldsell.Sellingskillswerenolongersufficienttoovercometheproblemscreatedwhenproductswerenotattunedtoamorediscriminantmarketdemand.Inordertoprovideabetterfitbetweenmarketdemandandcompanyofferings-andinordertoprovideforbettercoordinationofmarketingactivities-companiesreorganizedandassignedincreasedresponsibilitiestothemarketingdepartment.
Marketingtookontheroleofanalyzingmarketsandinterpretingtheneeds,andmanufacturingdepartments.Moresophisticatedaproachesweredevelopedtofulfillthetraditionalmarketingrolesofproductpromotionandthemanagementofdistributionchannels.Theroleofmarketinginpricingincreased.Andfinally,themarketingdepartmentbecamethefocalpointforthedevelopmentofcorporatestrategiesneededtoadjusttomarketchange.
SocietalOrientation
Whenmanagementsadoptedthemarketingconcept,theycouldnotforeseetheenvironmentalproblemsorthechangesinsociety'svaluesthatwouldraisequestionsaboutthemarketorientationphilosophy.Intermsofwhatwenowknowaboutpollution,thefinitenessofrawmaterials,andtheapparentinabilityofoureconomicsystemtoeliminatepoverty,somepeoplequestionwhetherwhatisgoodfortheindividualconsumerisalwaysgoodforsociety.Increasingly,nationalpolicy-and,inturn,businesspolicy-istemperingconcernfortheconsumerwithconcernforsocietyasawhole.ThomasA.Murphy,chairmanofGeneralMotors,addressedthisdilemmawhenhesaid,"Wemayhaveletourselvesgrowoutoftouchwiththecustomer'sneedforcontinuedsatisfactioninatimeofheightenedexpectationsandthesociety'sconcernforenvironmentalimprove-mentandenergyconservation."
Marketingpoliciesattunedtoservingthemarketasthemarketwantstobeservedcontinuetorepresentmoderncompanypolicy.Butwearealsoseeingmarket-orienteddecisionsmodifiedbysocietalconcerns,asaresultbothoflawandofresponsiblemanagementpolicies.
2.Channelsofdistribution
Efficientproductionmethods,coupledwithskilfulmarketing,mayhaveensuredthatwecanproducegoodsorservicescheaplyandthatthereisamarketforthem.Thereremainsthevitallyimportantquestionofhowweactuallygetourgoodsandservicestothecustomer.
DirectsalestoCustomers
This,ofcourse,istheoldestformofdistributionandinmanytradesitremainsthemostimportant.However,itcanbeaveryawkwardoneinsomebusinessessuchasmanufacturing.Customersespeciallyprivatebuyers,areunlikelytogotoafactorytobuywhattheywant,andmanufacturingfirms,atleastonecompanyseekingtosellitschainsofpetrolfillingstationsinthemid1980s.Thereareothertradeswhereproducersselldirectlytocustomers.Insomecasesthisisbecauseproducersfinditadvantageoustocontrolthefinalretailstageandbeinapositiontoofferacompleteservice,includingafter-salesservice,tothecustomer.Inotherindustriesproducersmayselldirectlytoconsumersthroughfactoryshops,farmshops,"pick-your-own"arrangementsatfarms,bymailorderoranyotherschemethatbusinessingenuitymaydevise.
OrganizedMarkets
Afterdirectselling,marketsrepresenttheoldestformoftradefromproducertoconsumer.Herewehaveinmindnottheratailmardetsfoundinmanytownson"marketdays"butthemarketswhereproducersandtraders,especiallythetradersincommoditiesmaketheirdeals.Thesemarkets,locatedinmanyoftheworld'smajortradingcenters,includingLondonwheremostofthemainBritishcommodityexchangesarefound,bringtogetherproducersandtraderswhowishtobuyinbulkforonwardDistributiontothefinalcustomer.
Bycommoditieswemeangoodssuchastin,copper,zincandothermetalsorbulkfoodstuffsliketea,coffee,wheatandcocoa.Whatdistinguishescommoditiesisthattheytendtobesoldonthebasisofobjectivedescriptions,suchas"Braziliancoffee"or"SriLankantea",ratherthanaccordingtosomebrandname,though,ofcourse,theexperiencedbuyerwillbeabletodistinguishhighandlowqualitygoodsaccordingtotheirsourceortoawholesaler.
Wholesaling
Themarketswehavejustoutlinedarewholesalemarkets.Wholesalinginvolvespurchasinggoodsinlargequantitiesfromtheproducerorimporterandsellinginsmallerquantitiestotheretailer,orsometimes,toanotherwholesalerordealer.Aserviceisprovidedastheproducerpreferstodealwithlargeordersandtheretailerinsmallerpurchases.Thereare,however,otherservicesprovidedbywholesalingbesidesthis'breakingbulk.
Conventionalwholesalinghasdeclinedinimportanceinrecentdecades.Thefunctionsofwholesalingstillhavetobeundertakenbutarenowoftenlessimportantthaninthepastandwheretheyremainessentialareoftencarriedoutbymanufacturers,or,morenoticeably,byretailers.Thegrowthoflargechainsinretailinghasoftenbeenmadepossiblebytheincorporationofwholesalingandretailingwithintheoneorganization.Develomentsinproductionmethods,intransportandcommunicationshaveallcontributedtothisprocess.Whenflourwassoldbymillersinlargesacks,breakingbulkwasanecessaryserviceforsmallshopssellingtoordinaryhouseholds.Modernmachineshavenodifficultyinpackingflourinpaperbagsattheendoftheproductionline.Motorwaytransport,thetelephoneandtelexhavebroughtretailerandmanufacturerclosertogetherandthewholesaler'swarehousingisnotalwaysessent