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语言学概论课后参考答案杨信彰
语言学概论-课后参考答案--杨信彰
Charpter1
1.1.1
1.a.Thissentencemayhavethreeinterpretations:
1)Herolledfromsidetosideinhisgrave.2)Hereturnedhisgrave.3)Hehandedinhisgrave.
b.Therearetwointerpretationstothissentence:
1)Theygavepreferencetobothyoungmenandyoungwomen.2)Theygavepreferencetowomenandyoungmen.
2.Unitsthathavereference:
I,saw,Mary,went,thelibrary.
Unitsthatindicatestructure:
when,to.
3.a.Thissentenceisgrammatical,butisnonsensical.
b.Thissentenceisungrammaticalandnonsensical.
c.Thisisagoodsentence.
d.Thisisagoodsentence.
1.1.2
1.a.Thissignisasymbol.Itmeanswewillhavegoodluck.Iknowitfrommyculturalbackground,becausetheChinesecharacter"福"means"luck"andthecolorredsymbolizes"goodness".TheChinesemeaningof"upsidedown"is"倒",whichhasthesimilarpronunciationof"到(arrive)".Thus,whenthecharacter"福"isputupsidedown,itmeansthatluckarrives.
b.Thissignisanicon.Itmeansnosmoking,andIknowitfromthepicture.
c.Thissignisamixtureofasymbolandaicon.Itmeansthat"parking"isonlyallowedfordisabledpeople.
2.Ithinkthehouseisonfirebecausesmokeisaindexoffire.
3.Tothephysician,itmeansthatthemanhasgotafever.
4.Ithinkso,butnotexactly,becausethedifferenceoftheconsonantsdoesnotmeanthebirdindifferentplacescriesdifferently.
1.1.3
1.accordingtothearbitrarinesstheory,theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalresemblancetotheirmeaning.Thelinkbetweenthemisamatterofconvention.Thus,thenameXiaoLongisjustalabelfortheson.However,inChineseculturedragonwasthesymbolfortheemperor.Thus,thenamemayhavecertainassociativemeanings.
2.No.Thespeakerofalanguage,basedupontheconventionestablishedinthespeechcommunity,associateslinguisticsignswiththingsandconcepts.Inpeople'smind,"pig"standsforfoolishnessandlaziness.IfInameitPigHairShampoo,noonewillbuyit.
3.Wordsarearbitraryinform,buttheyarenotrandomintheiruse.Althoughthelinkbetweenformandmeaningisarbitrary,thereexistedcertainrelationshipbetweenthem,whichcanbecalledrules.Theindividualdoesnothavethepowertochangeasigninanywayonceithasbecomeestablishedinthelinguisticcommunity.
2.Currently,wecannotsaythatalllanguagesintheworldderivedfromonecommonancestor.Itmightbetruethatsomelanguageshavedivergedfromonecommonancestor,forexample,French,Spanish,ItalianandotherRomancelanguageswereclearlydescendedfromLatin,butnoevidenceshowthatalllanguagesintheworldhavethesameorigin.Asresearchshows,thereareatleast29languagefamiliesintheworld.However,thisproblemwillbesolvedwhenwehaveenoughevidencetoshowthathumanbeingshaveonecommonancestor.
3.Themajorcausesforthelanguagediversityintheworldincludegrammaticalstructure,historicalfactors,socialfactors,interculturalcontact,etc.
1.4.1
1.Thetwosentencesperformthesamefunctionofrequesting.However,Thetwosentenceshavedifferentchoicesofwordsandsyntaxstructures.Sentence(a)isstructurallyanimperativesentence,whileSentence(b)takestheformofaquestionandtheword'please'isadded.So,theeffectsofthetwoutterancesaredifferent.Sentence(b)wouldsoundmorepolite.Whenwearedecodingthem,wewouldtakeintoaccountsuchfactorsaschoiceofwordsandsyntacticstructures,theprincipleofpolitenessandthecontext.
2.Asascience,linguisticsdemandsascientificoutlookuponlanguage.Toconductastudyoflanguagescientifically,wemusttakeanobjectiveviewoflanguageandalllinguisticphenomenaandstudylanguageandreflectonitinadetachedandunbiasedway.Evenalocalvarietywithfewnativespeakersmayalsofallwithinourinvestigations.Moreover,weshouldadoptthegeneralprinciplesofempiricalresearchprocedurestoobserveandanalyzedatafoundinnaturallanguages.
3.Therealobjectoflinguisticsistofindoutfundamentalrulesthatunderlieallthelanguagesintheworld.Weneedtolookintothecommonfeaturesofalllanguages,therangeofvariationsamonglanguages,thedifferenceofhumanlanguagesfromanimalcommunication,thechangeandevolutionoflanguage,therelationoflanguagetomindandsociety,andsoon.
1.4.2
1.Itisveryimportanttostudyspeechinlinguistics,becauselanguageisprimarilyvocal.Asweknow,nocommunityhasawrittenformonly,thoughmanyhaveaspokenlanguageonly.Childrenlearnspokenlanguagefirstandmosteasily.Earlierinthe20thcenturycertainlinguistsbegantodoubtthepriorityofwriting.Bloomfieldarguedthatwritingwasnotlanguagebutmerelyawayofrecordinglanguage.Thecontemporarylinguisticsmaintainsthatthespokenlanguageisprimaryandthatwritingisessentiallyameansofrepresentingspeechinanothermedium.Linguisticshasstressedthepriorityofspeechbecauseitisthe"natural,"orprimary,mediuminwhichlanguageismanifest,andwrittenlanguagederivesfromthetransferenceofspeechtoasecondary,visualmedium.
2.Thereisnoabsolutestandardofcorrectnessbecauselinguisticsisdescriptive,notprescriptive.Differentgroupsofpeoplemayusedifferentvarietiesoflanguage.Thecorrectnessinlanguageuseshouldnotbeprescribedgrammatically.
3.Inreality,itisimpossibletohaveastandardlanguage.Thereasonisthatlinguisticsisdescriptive,notprescriptive.Thereisnoabsolutestandardofcorrectness.What'smore,asweknow,withthepassageoftime,alllanguagesaresubjecttochange.Alllivinglanguagesaretheretoservethedifferentsocialneedsofthecommunitiesthatusethem.Astheseneedschange,languageswilltendtochangetomeetthenewsituations.Thus,astandardlanguageisnotpossible.
1.5.1
1.Therearemanyexternalfactorsrelatedtolanguage.Culturalfactorsinfluencethefullmeaningofthelanguageconveys.Socialfactorsincludethesocialbackgroundsofboththespeakerandtheaddressee(i.e.theirage,sex,socialclass,ethnicbackground,degreeofintegrationintotheirneighborhood,etc.),therelationshipbetweenspeakerandaddresseeandthecontextandmanneroftheinteraction.Psychologicalfactorshaveeffectsonpeople'sbehaviors.
2.Thoughtherearemanytranslationsoftwaresinthemarket,translationsdonebymachinesarefulloferrorsandrequiremuchpost-editing.Thekeyproblemisthelackofagoodlinguistictheorytoprovideaframeofreferenceformachinetranslation.Itisunlikelythatmachineswillreplacehumantranslators.
3.Foreignlanguagelearningandteachinginvolvesseveralinterrelatedfactors.Theseare:
linguistictheories,situationalfactors,inputandinteraction,learnerdifferences,learnerprocesses,linguisticoutput,curriculumandsyllabusdesign,teachingmethodology,learnerandteacherroles,textbookwriting,languageplanning,andsoon.
1.5.2
1.Linguisticstudieshavegonethroughmanychanges.Sincethe1930sdowntothepresent,theexpansionofknowledgeinsomanydirectionshaveledtoseveralattemptstomakesynthesisandtodevelopaunifiedtheoryoflanguage.SeveralschoolsofthoughthaveemergedroundafewprominentlinguistssuchasFirth,Halliday,HjelmslevandChomsky,majorcentersoflinguisticstudylikePragueSchool,GenevaSchool,CopenhagenSchool,andleadingconceptssuchasstructuralism,functionalism,tagmemics,systemicfunctionalgrammar,transformationalgenerativegrammar,speechacttheory.
2.Ithinkdiscourseanalysisisaproperwaytostudylanguage.Traditionallinguisticanalysishasconcentratedontheinternalstructureofsentences,butdiscourseanalysisisinterestedintheanalysisofunitslargerthansentences.Thus,thetermdiscourseortextreferstoalllinguisticunitswithadefinablecommunicativefunction,spokenorwritten.Itstressestheneedtoseelanguageasadynamic,social,andinteractivephenomenon.
3.Acorpusisalwaysneededinlinguistics.Overthepastfewyears,thestudyoflanguageinactualusehasrequiredacorpus-basedresearch.Scholarsneedacorpustoanalyzepatternsofuseinnaturaltexts.Theimportanceofcorpustolanguagestudyisalignedtotheimportanceofempiricaldatabecauseempiricaldataenablethelinguisttomakeobjectivestatements,ratherthanthosebasedupontheindividual'sownsubjectiveperceptionoflanguage.So,corpuslinguisticsshouldbeseenasasubsetoftheactivitywithinanempiricalapproachtolinguistics.
Charpter2
2.1.1
1.Articulatoryphoneticsdealswiththeidentificationandclassificationofindividualsounds.Itattemptstoprovideaframeworkofthenatureofspeechsoundsandhowtheyareproduced.Acousticphoneticsfocusesontheanalysisandmeasurementofsoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalcharacteristicsofspeechsoundsastheyaredeterminedandmeasuredbymachines,andattemptstodeducetheacousticbasisofspeechproductionandperception.
2.Thespeechchainconsistsofthreestages:
theproductionofthemessage,thetransmissionofthemessageandthereceptionofthemessage.AccordingtoBallandRahilly,thereareaseriesofactivitiesinthespeechchain.First,thereisphysiologicalactivityinthebrainofthespeaker.Thenthebrainsendsinstructionstoavarietyofmusclesofvocalorgans.Theresultisarangeofmusclecontractionsandphysicalmovementofstructuressuchastheribcage,thelarynx,thetongueandsoon.Inturn,thesemovementsgiverisetoanaerodynamicphaseofthespeechchain,wherebyairflowsthroughthevocaltract.Thisairflowinteractswithcontinuedmovementofstructuressuchasthevocalfolds,tongue