英语国家概况Drama.docx
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英语国家概况Drama
AmericanLiterature:
Drama
I
INTRODUCTION
AmericanLiterature:
Drama, literature intendedforperformance,writtenbyAmericansintheEnglishlanguage.AmericandramabeginsintheAmericancoloniesinthe17thcenturyandcontinuestothepresent.SeealsoDramaandDramaticArts.
Most American plays ofthe18thand19thcenturiesstronglyreflectedBritishinfluence.Infact,noNewYorkCitytheaterseasonpresentedmoreAmericanplaysthanBritishplaysuntil1910.Thereasonsbehindthisphenomenonarecomplex,butacommonlanguageandthereadyavailabilityofBritishplaysandBritishactorsofferthemostobviousexplanation.
Although the British repertorydominatedtheAmericanstageforsolong,AmericandramahadbeguntodivergefromBritishdramabythetimeofAndrewJackson’spresidency,from1828to1836.Britishplays,whichtypicallyreflectedtheattitudesandmannersoftheupperclasses,werebytheninconflictwithmoreegalitarianAmericanvalues.Despitethisgrowingdivergence,Britishactors,theatermanagers,andplayscontinuedtocrosstheAtlanticOceanwithregularity,andmostAmericanplayscopiedBritishmodelsuntiltheearly20thcentury.ForthisreasonsomecriticsclaimthatAmericandramawasnotbornuntiltheendofWorldWarI(1914-1918).
By the end of the 19thcenturyAmericandramawasmovingsteadilytowardrealism,illuminatingtheroughorseamysideoflifeandcreatingmorebelievablecharacters.Realismremainedthedominanttrendofthe20thcenturyinbothcomediesandtragedies.AmericandramaachievedinternationalrecognitionwiththepsychologicalrealismofplaysbyEugeneO’Neillandtheirsearinginvestigationofcharacters’innerlives.Asthecenturyadvanced,thenumberoftopicsconsideredsuitablefordramabroadenedtoencompassrace,gender,sexuality,anddeath.
II
BEGINNINGS:
1600SAND1700S
Because settlement wassparseandlivingconditionswerearduousintheAmericancolonies,littletheatricalactivitytookplacebeforethemid-18thcentury.Thefirst-knownEnglish-languageplayfromthecolonies,YeBareandYeCubb(1665),islost.Theplay’sexistenceisknownasaresultofthecontroversyitarousedintheVirginiaColony,wherealawsuitwasfiledtopreventtheplayfromopening.SeveralcolonieshadpassedantitheaterlawsbasedonaPuritanbeliefthattheseventhoftheTenCommandmentsprohibiteddancingandstageplays.
The oldest surviving AmericanplayisAndroborusbyRobertHunter(1714).Hunter,theNewYorkColony’sgovernor,publishedthecartoonishplayasanattackonhispoliticalenemies,despiteNewYork’santitheaterlaw.Intendedforareadingpublicratherthanaviewingaudience,itestablishedatraditionofpoliticalsatirethatbecamecommonfareinAmericandramaofthe1700s.
Before more American playshadappeared,acompanyofBritishprofessionalactorsestablishedatouringcircuitinthe1750swithanall-Britishrepertory.Bytheearly1760sthisgroupwasknownasTheAmericanCompanyandAmericanwritersoccasionallysubmittedplaystotheactors,thoughfewwereproduced.Butin1767TheAmericanCompanystagedThePrinceofParthia,atragedybyThomasGodfrey,inPhiladelphia.ThisisusuallyconsideredthefirstprofessionalproductionofaplaywrittenbyanAmerican.TheplayitselfisindistinguishablefromimitationsoftheworksofEnglishdramatistWilliamShakespearethataboundedinBritaininthelate1700sandearly1800s.
During the American Revolution(1775-1783),mostprofessionalactorsmovedtoJamaica.Satiricalplayswerewrittenaspropagandaduringthewar,eithersupportingBritishcontrolofthecoloniesorattackingit.Britishsoldierspresentedsomeofthepro-Britishplays.Fewotherplayswereperformedduringthewaryears,althoughtheywerewidelyreadandrecited.TheBattleofBrooklyn(1776),whichwaspro-Britishandwrittenanonymously,presentedrebelgenerals,includingGeorgeWashington,asdrunks,lechers,andcowards.TheBlockade(1775),writtenbyBritishGeneralJohnBurgoyne,wasperformedinBritish-occupiedBoston.Theplay’sridiculeofAmericansoldierswassubsequentlyburlesquedinTheBlockheads;ortheAffrightedOfficers(1776),writtenbyananonymousplaywrightidentifiedonlyasapatriot.TheBlockheadsdepictsBritishsoldiersassoterrifiedoftheAmericansthattheysoilthemselvesratherthangooutsidetousethelatrine.MercyOtisWarren,whocreatedseveralbitingsatiresoftheBritish,mayhavewrittenTheBlockheadsaswell.SheremainedthestrongestAmericandramaticvoiceoftheRevolutionandchampionedtherebelcauseinTheGroup(1775),aplaythatdescribesBritain,calledBlunderland,asamotherwhoeatsherownchildren.ThePatriots(1775?
),aplaybyRobertMunford,wasunusualinitsappealforaneutralstanceanditsattacksonbothsidesfortheirintolerance.
By the mid-1780s professionalactorsweretouringinAmericaagain.In1787,whentheConstitutionoftheUnitedStateswasbeingwritten,RoyallTylerwroteTheContrast,thefinestAmericanplayofthe18thcentury.Thisfive-actcomedyowesmuchtoTheSchoolforScandal(1777)byBritishplaywrightRichardSheridan.LikeSheridan’splay,TheContrastisacomedyofmannersthatsatirizesthecustomsoftheupperclasses.ItcomparesBritishandAmericanfashionsandvaluesandultimatelysideswithwhatitseesasAmericancandorandpatriotismoverBritishduplicityandartificiality.AmasterfulelementoftheplayistheYankeecharacterJonathan,whosehonestinnocencestandsinstarkcontrasttotherumor-mongeringandgossipingoftheplay’sBritishcharactersandtheAmericancharacterswhoemulatethem.
The 1700s also saw thefirstAmericanplaywrittenbyawomanreachtheprofessionalstage.ThemelodramaticcomedySlavesinAlgiers(1794)bySusannaRowsonreflectstroublesatthattimewithpiratesalongNorthAfrica’sBarbaryCoastwhointerferedwithshippingandranawhiteslavetradethatinvolvedsellinggirlsandwomenintoprostitution.Althoughthevillainwastreatedcomically,theconflictandresolutioninthisplayindicatedamovetowardmelodrama,aformofdramathatbecameextremelypopularinthe19thcentury.
III
NATIONHOOD:
THE1800S
American plays, whilestillaminority,begantoappearinthetheaterrepertoryinthe19thcentury.AlthoughAmericanplayswerestillstyledafterBritishmodels,theirsubjectmattercametobebasedonspecificallyAmericanincidentsorthemes.IntheUnitedStatesasinBritain,manyplaysreflectedtheinfluenceofromanticism,aEuropeanliteraryandartisticmovement.Melodrama,withitsoutpouringsofemotion,wasthemostprevalentdramaticforminthe19thcentury.Gothicmelodramas,whichemphasizedhorror,mystery,andthesupernatural,andmelodramaswithtragicendingsappearedregularlyinAmericantheatersfromthe1790son—inmanycasesadaptedortranslatedfromGerman,French,andBritishplays.
A
AmericanThemes
The first prolific writerofmelodramaswasWilliamDunlap,whoalsotranslatedseveralGermanplaysforproductionintheUnitedStates.DunlapadaptedRevolutionaryWarhistoryinAndré(1798),afictionalizedaccountofthefinaldaysofBritishspyMajorJohnAndré.In1803Dunlapreshapedtheplayasamusical,GloryofColumbia,inwhichGeorgeWashingtoniselevatedtodivinestatus.Itwasanearlyexampleofspectacledominatingdramaticcontent.DunlaptookspectacleevenfurtherinATriptoNiagara(1828)bymakingtheplay’spurposetheduplicationofscenicwondersthattheaudiencewouldrecognize,suchasNiagaraFalls.
Replication of local color,asinATriptoNiagara,becamethenormin19th-centuryAmericanmelodramaandencompasseddetailsofscenery,dialects,andgesturesrepresentativeofspecificlocations;contemporaryslang;andhistoricalincidents.AnearlyexampleisSheWouldBeaSoldier(1819)byMordecaiNoah.TheplaydepictsthemilitaryspectacleoftheWarof1812betweentheUnitedStatesandBritainandfeaturesaheroinewhodisguisesherselfasasoldiertohelptheAmericancauseandjointhemansheloves.
Although American dramaofthe19thcenturyusuallyfollowedEuropeanmodels,itssubjectmatteroftencamefromspecificallyAmericansituations.Superstition(1824),aromantictragedybyJamesNelsonBarker,forexample,wassetinNewEnglandof1675.ItdiscussedconflictsbetweenNativeAmericansandwhitesettlers,Britishinterferenceinlocalaffairs,Puritanxenophobia(fearanddislikeofforeigners),andtheideaofwitchcraft.Superstition,inwhichtheheroistriedandexecutedforwitchcraft,wasthefirstofmanyAmericanplaystoexplorethemesofisolationism,bigotry,andintolerance.
Barker’s The Indian Princess(1808)wasthefirstprofessionallyproducedplaytoexploreNativeAmericancharactersandthemes.IttoldthestoryofPocahontas,aNativeAmericanwhomarriedanEnglishcolonist.Avogueforso-calledIndianplaysbeganinthe1820sandcontinuedthroughthe1840s.WhilethePocahontasstorywaspopularintheseplays,themostfamoussuchdramawasMetamora,orTheLastoftheWampanoags(1829)byJohnAugustusStone.ItwaswrittenasavehicleforAmericanactorEdwinForrest,whobeganin1828toofferannualawardsfornewplaysonAmericanthemesandgaveMetamorafirstprize.ThismelodramawastypicalofmostIndianplaysinitssettinginanearlierperiodoffrontierhistory(the1670s)anditscharacterizationoftheNativeAmericanhero.Metamorawasviewedasnaturalbutuncivilized—thatis,livinginharmonywithnaturebutunfamiliarwithwhatEuropeansettlerssawascivilizedways.TheplayputforthsentimentsinharmonywithwhitevaluesandendedwithMetamora’sinevitabledeathastherep