The Origin of Two American Copyright TheoriesA Case of the Reception of English Law.docx

The Origin of Two American Copyright TheoriesA Case of the Reception of English Law.docx

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TheOriginofTwoAmericanCopyrightTheoriesACaseoftheReceptionofEnglishLaw

TheOriginofTwoAmericanCopyrightTheories 

--ACaseoftheReceptionofEnglishLaw--

HideakiShirata

http:

//orion.t.hosei.ac.jp/hideaki/twocopy.htm

1?

@TheOriginalConceptofCopyrightinEngland

TheconceptofcopyrightemergedinEnglandinthesixteenthcenturyfromthebylawsoftheguildthenmonopolisingthecountry'spublishingindustry.TheguildwasgrantedacharterofincorporationbyQueenMaryin1556andreorganiseditselfastheCompanyofStationersofLondon.WithofficialrecognitionoftheCompany'smonopoly,itsbylawsandconceptofcopyrightalsocamegraduallytobeacknowledgedasthoseofanofficialinstitute.Thequasi-rightknownasStationers'Copyrightwasbasedonroyalprerogativeorletterpatentcoveringtheentirepublishingindustryasanestate.Thismonopolywasassignedtoitsmembersasavirtualfreeholdinterest.AlthoughtheStationers'CopyrightwasbasedonaprerogativewhichlaiddownthreebasiccharacteristicsofAnglo-Americancopyright-namelythatregistrationisindispensableforitsprotection,copyrightwasavailablenotonlytotheauthorbutalsotopurchasers,anditremainsvalidforatermthatisamultipleofsevenyears-itgavenoconsiderationwhatsoevertotheauthor'sright [1].

Englandenactedtheworld'sfirstcopyrightlawin1710 [2].Thisstatutehaslongbeenconsideredaturningpointinthehistoryofcopyrightasitclearlyrecognisedtheauthor'sright.Contrarytothislong-standingbelief,however,thispaperwillargue,byathoroughinvestigationofthepurposeandlegislativerecordofthestatute,thatitwasinfactenactedfortheabolitionofstationer'smonopoly [3].

Withrespecttopurpose,thestatutegrantedanextensionoftheexistingmonopolyfor21yearsandanexclusiverightfornewworksforfourteenyearswithanoptiontorenewforthesameperiod.Moreover,thestatuteusedtheauthor'srightonlytojustifytheabolitionofthemonopoly.

Thisargumentcanbesupportedbythefollowingthreepoints.

First,apartdeletedfromtheoriginaldraftofthe1710statuteclearlyemphasisedthatauthorsweretobegivenpriorityoverotherswithrespecttocopyright.Parliamentaryrecordsrevealthatthisparticularpartwasremovedunderpressurefrommonopolisticbooksellers.

Whereas thelibertywhich Printers,Booksellers,andotherPersonshaveoflatefrequentlytaken in [theLibertyof]Printing,Reprinting,andPublishing,orcausingtobePrinted,ReprintedandPublishedBooks,andotherWritings,withouttheConsentofAuthors thereof,inwhomyeundoubtedPropertyofsuchBooksandWritingastheproductoftheirlearningandlabourremainsorofsuchpersonstowhomsuchAuthorsforgoodConsidera（c^）onshavelawfullytransferredtheirRightandtitlethereinisnotonlyarealdiscouragementtolearningingenerll[sic]whichinallCivilizedNationsoughttoreceiveyegreatestCountenanceandEncouragemt[sic]butitisalsoanotoriouslnvasionofyepropertyofyerightful [or]ProprietorsofsuchBooksandWritings,totheirverygreatDetriment,andtoooftentotheRuinofthemandtheirFamilies:

...

That whereanyAuthorshallhereafterComposeorwriteanybookorbooksandshallreservetohimselfyeCopyorCopiesofSuchbookorBooksshareorSharesthereofOranyBooksellerprinterorotherpersonwhohathalreadypurchasedoracquiredorshallhereafterpurchaseoracquireyeCopyorCopiesofanyBookorBooksShareorSharesthereofinOrdertoprintorreprintyesameThatinanyoreitheroftheseCases fromandaftertheThenthDayofApril,Onethousandsevenhandredandten,theAuthorofanyBookorBooksalreadyPrinted... [4]

Second,thereisthesimilaritybetweentheStatuteofMonopolyof1623 [5] andthe1710statute.TheStatuteofMonopolywas,needlesstosay,intendedtoabolishthemonopoliessorampantduringtheElizabethanage.Itallowed21-yearmonopoliesforexistingprivilegesgrantedwithoutspecifictermsand14-yearmonopoliesforforthcominginventions.ThestructureoftheStatuteofMonopolyissimilartothefirstsectionofthe1710statute.

Anactconcerningmonopoliesanddispensationswithpenallawsandtheforfeituresthereof,21Jac.1,c.3.

V....Andifthesameweremadeformorethanoneandtwentyyears,Thatthenthesameforthetermofoneandtwentyyearsonly,tobeaccountedfromthedateofthefirstletterspatentsandgrantsthereofmade,shallbeofsuchforceastheywereorshouldhavebeen,ifthesamehadbeenmadebutfortermofoneandtwentyyearsonly,andasifthisacthadneverbeenhadormade,andnoneother,VI.Providedalso,andbeitdeclaredandenacted,Thatanydeclarationbeforementionedshallnotextendtoanyletterspatentsandgrantsofprivilegeforthetermoffourteenyearsorunder,hereaftertobemade,ofthesoleworkingormakingofanymannerofnewmanufactrueswithinthisrealm,tothetrueandfirstinventorandinventorsofsuchmanufactures,...

AnActfortheEncouragementofLearning,byVestingtheCopiesofPrintedBooksintheAuthorsorPurchasersofsuchCopies,duringtheTimesthereinmentioned,8Anne,c.19.

...[T]heAuthorofanyBookorBooksalreadyPrinted,whohathnotTransferredtoanyothertheCopyorCopiesofsuchBookorBooks,ShareorSharesthereof,ortheBooksellerorBooksellers,PrinterorPrinters,orotherPersonorPersons,whohathorhavePurchasedorAcquiredtheCopyorCopiesofanyBookorBooks,inordertoPrintorReprintthesame,shallhavethesoleRightandLibertyofPrintingsuchBookandBooksfortheTermofOneandtwentyYears,...andnolonger;andthattheAuthorofanyBookorBooksalreadyComposedandnotPrintedandPublished,orthatshallhereafterbeComposed,andhisAssigneeorAssigns,shallhavethesoleLibertyofPrintingandReprintingsuchBookandBooksfortheTermofFourteenYears,toCommencefromtheDayoftheFirstPublishingthesame,andnolonger;...

Third,therearetheclaimsmadebyintellectualsaround1710.TheLicensingActof1662 [6],whichgavelegalauthoritytothemonopolyinthebooktrade,wasrepealedin1695.JohnLockecontributedmuchtowardsitsrepeal,writingtopeersintheHouseofLordsandstronglycondemningtherestrictionsonsciencecausedbytheprovisionsoftheActandthemonopoliesofStationersCompany.（See,AppendixA.）

Althoughthe1710statuteaimedtoabolishmonopolies,monopolisticbooksellersattemptedtoforgeacasewhichwouldnullifyitsschemeandprovideeternalprotectionfortheirbusinesses.Wecanseethatintheactionsbroughtafter1731whenstatutorycopyrightprotectionbegantoexpire.Theyevencolludedtoaccomplishtheirgoal [7].Aseriesoftheseactionsknownasthe``BattleoftheBooksellers''attractedconsiderablepublicattentioninLondon [8].

Suchactivitiesaimedatestablishingcopyrightasaneternalrightweremostapparentin Millarv.Taylor in1769 [9].AsaresultofthedecisionoftheKing'sBenchinthiscase,copyrightwasunderstood,forfiveyearsuntil1774,tobeakindofcommonlawrighteternalinnature.Inthiscase,SirWilliamBlackstoneandLordMansfieldmadeagreatcontributiontopromotingtheplaintiffs'cause.Blackstonehadpreviouslypublished CommentariesontheLawsofEngland [10] in1767inwhichheinterpretedcopyrightasalegalconceptforthefirsttime.CitingLockeannaturallawtheory [11],hedescribedcopyrightasakindofpersonalpropertyincommonlawonthegroundthatanykindofpublishedworkisbasedontheauthor'sbrainwork.Blackstonerevisedthedescriptiontoemphasisethedistinctionbetweenthecommonlawrightandstatutorycopyrightafterthe Millar casewasoverruledin Donaldsonv.Beckett in1774 [12].Thedistinctionwas,however,sotechnicalthatmostreadersfounditdifficulttocomprehend.（See, AppendixB.）

TheplotofthebooksellerswasultimatelydefeatedbythedecisionoftheHouseofLordsinthe Donaldson case,whichestablishedthebasicstructureoftheconceptofAnglo-Americancopyrightinthenineteenthcentury.Thatis,whenanauthorfixedhiscreationonatangiblemedium,heobtainedacommonlawrightthatiseternalinnature.However,hewouldlosethecommonlawrightafterthepublicationofhiscreationbecauseofloseingphysicaloccupancyorcontrolonthecreation.Toavoidthisinconvenience,astatuteestablishedprivilageormonopolythatexcludeothersfromutilizingauthor'sworkforlimitedterm.ThroughouttheBattleoftheBooksellers,ontheotherhand,lawyershadmaintainedthattheprincipleofcopyrightshouldbebasedonLockeannaturallawtheoryandthisassertioncamegraduallytoreceivesomedegreeofpublicrecognition.

2?

@TheReceptionofCopyrightLawinAmerica

ThecolonialgovernmentofMassachusettsenactedin1672alawthatcanberegardedasthefirstcopyrightlawinBritishterritoryontheAmericancontinent.ThereisnoevidencethattheAmericancolonieshadanyothercopyrightstatutesafterthatuntilthe1780s.Thereasonforitsabsencecanbeexplainedbyfollowingthreepoints.First,despitethefactthatworksofAmericanauthorswerepublishedinAmerica,thenumberofworkswaslimitedandalargeproportionoftheAmericanmarketwasdominatedbyBritishauthors.Second,authorsincolonieswerealsoeditorsandpublishers.Therewasasentimentortraderulecalled``courtesycopyright''or``mutualobligation''amongpublishers,whicheffectivelysuppressedpiracy.Third,therewaslittleornoconflictofmarketshareamongpublishersonaccountoftheextensiveandgrowingAmericanmarket.Themarketwasalsostrictlysegmented.Eachpublisheroftensupporteda