Translation of 《The structure.docx
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Translationof《Thestructure
一、原文
The structure and function of communication in society
TheActofCommunication
Convenientwaytodescribeanactofcommunicationistoanswerthefollowingquestions:
Who
SaysWhat
InWhichChannel
ToWhom
WithWhatEffect?
Thescientificstudyoftheprocessofcommunicationtendstoconcentrateupononeoranotherofthesequestions.Scholarswhostudythe“who,”thecommunicator,lookintothefactorsthatinitiateandguidetheactofcommunication.Wecallthissubdivisionofthefieldofresearchcontrolanalysis.Specialistswhofocusuponthe“sayswhat”engageincontentanalysis.Thosewholookprimarilyattheradio,press,film,andotherchannelsofcommunicationaredoingmediaanalysis.Whentheprincipalconcerniswiththepersonsreachedbythemedia,wespeakofaudienceanalysis.Ifthequestionistheimpactuponaudiences,theproblemiseffectanalysis.
Whethersuchdistinctionsareusefuldependsentirelyuponthedegreeofrefinementwhichisregardedasappropriatetoagivenscientificandmanagerialobjective.Oftenitissimplertocombineaudienceandeffectanalysis,forinstance,thantokeepthemapart.Ontheotherhand,wemaywanttoconcentrateontheanalysisofcontent,andforthispurposesubdividethefieldintothestudyofpurportandstyle,thefirstreferringtothemessage,andthesecondtothearrangementoftheelementsofwhichthemessageiscomposed.
StructureandFunction
Enticingasitistoworkoutthesecategoriesinmoredetail,thepresentdiscussionhasadifferentscope.Wearelessinterestedindividinguptheactofcommunicationthaninviewingtheactasawholeinrelationtotheentiresocialprocess.Anyprocesscanbeexaminedintwoframesofreference,namely,structureandfunction;andouranalysisofcommunicationwilldealwiththespecializationsthatcarryoncertainfunctions,ofwhichthefollowingmaybeclearlydistinguished:
(1)thesurveillanceoftheenvironment;
(2)thecorrelationofthepartsofsocietyinrespondingtotheenvironment;(3)thetransmissionofthesocialheritagefromonegenerationtothenext.
BiologicalEquivalences
Attheriskofcallingupfalseanalogies,wecangainperspectiveonhumansocietieswhenwenotethedegreetowhichcommunicationisafeatureoflifeateverylevel.Avitalentity,whetherrelativelyisolatedorinassociation,hasspecializedwaysofreceivingstimulifromtheenvironment.Thesingle-celledorganismorthemany-memberedgrouptendstomaintainaninternalequilibriumandtorespondtochangesintheenvironmentinawaythatmaintainsthisequilibrium.Therespondingprocesscallsforspecializedwaysofbringingthepartsofthewholeintoharmoniousaction.Multi-celledanimalsspecializecellstothefunctionofexternalcontactandinternalcorrelation.Thus,amongtheprimates,specializationisexemplifiedbyorganssuchastheearandeye,andthenervoussystemitself.Whenthestimulireceivinganddisseminatingpatternsoperatesmoothly,theseveralpartsoftheanimalactinconcertinreferencetotheenvironment(“feeding,”“fleeing,”“attacking”).
Insomeanimalsocietiescertainmembersperformspecializedroles,andsurveytheenvironment.Individualsactas“sentinels,”standingapartfromtheherdorflockandcreatingadisturbancewheneveranalarmingchangeoccursinthesurroundings.Thetrumpeting,cackling,orshrillingofthesentinelisenoughtosettheherdinmotion.Amongtheactivitiesengagedinbyspecialized“leaders”istheinternalstimulationof“followers”toadaptinanorderlymannertothecircumstancesheraldedbythesentinels.
Withinasingle,highlydifferentiatedorganism,incomingnervousimpulsesandoutgoingimpulsesaretransmittedalongfibersthatmakesynapticjunctionwithotherfibers.Thecriticalpointsintheprocessoccurattherelaystations,wherethearrivingimpulsemaybetooweaktoreachthethresholdwhichstirsthenextlinkintoaction.Atthehighercenters,separatecurrentsmodifyoneanother,producingresultsthatdifferinmanywaysfromtheoutcomewheneachisallowedtocontinueaseparatepath.Atanyrelaystationthereisnoconductance,totalconductance,orintermediateconductance.Thesamecategoriesapplytowhatgoesonamongmembersofananimalsociety.Theslyfoxmayapproachthebarnyardinawaythatsuppliestoomeagerstimuliforthesentineltosoundthealarm.Ortheattackinganimalmayeliminatethesentinelbeforehemakesmorethanafeebleoutcry.Obviouslythereiseverygradationpossiblebetweentotalconductanceandnoconductance.
AttentioninWorldSociety
Whenweexaminetheprocessofcommunicationofanystateintheworldcommunity,wenotethreecategoriesofspecialists.Onegroupsurveysthepoliticalenvironmentofthestateasawhole,anothercorrelatestheresponseofthewholestatetotheenvironment,andthethirdtransmitscertainpatternsofresponsefromtheoldtotheyoung.Diplomats,attaches,andforeigncorrespondentsarerepresentativeofthosewhospecializeontheenvironment.Editors,journalists,andspeakersarecorrelatorsoftheinternalresponse.Educatorsinfamilyandschooltransmitthesocialinheritance.
Communicationswhichoriginateabroadpassthroughsequencesinwhichvarioussendersandreceiversarelinkedwithoneanother.Subjecttomodificationateachrelaypointinthechain,messagesoriginatingwithadiplomatorforeigncorrespondentmaypassthrougheditorialdesksandeventuallyreachlargeaudiences.
Ifwethinkoftheworldattentionprocessasaseriesofattentionframes,itispossibletodescribetherateatwhichcomparablecontentisbroughttothenoticeofindividualsandgroups.Wecaninquireintothepointatwhich“conductance”nolongeroccurs;andwecanlookintotherangebetween“totalconductance”and“minimumconductance”.Themetropolitanandpoliticalcentersoftheworldhavemuchincommonwiththeinterdependence,differentiation,andactivityofthecorticalorsubcorticalcentersofanindividualorganism.Hencetheattentionframesfoundinthesespotsarethemostvariable,refined,andinteractiveofallframesintheworldcommunity.
Attheotherextremearetheattentionframesofprimitiveinhabitantsofisolatedareas.Notthatfolkculturesarewhollyuntouchedbyindustrialcivilization.WhetherweparachuteintotheinteriorofNewGuinea,orlandontheslopesoftheHimalayas,wefindnotribewhollyoutofcontactwiththeworld.Thelongthreadsoftrade,ofmissionaryzeal,ofadventurousexplorationandscientificfieldstudy,andofglobalwarreachfardistantplaces.Nooneisentirelyoutofthisworld.
Amongprimitivesthefinalshapetakenbycommunicationistheballadortale.Remotehappeningsinthegreatworldofaffairs,happeningsthatcometothenoticeofmetropolitanaudiences,arereflected,howeverdimly,inthethematicmaterialofballadsingersandreciters.Inthesecreationsfarawaypoliticalleadersmaybeshownsupplyinglandtothepeasantsorrestoringanabundanceofgametothehills.
Whenwepushupstreamoftheflowofcommunication,wenotethattheimmediaterelayfunctionfornomadicandremotetribesmenissometimesperformedbytheinhabitantsofsettledvillageswithwhomtheycomeinoccasionalcontact.There-layercanbetheschoolteacher,doctor,judge,taxcollector,policeman,soldier,peddler,salesman,missionary,student;inanycaseheisanassemblypointofnewsandcomment.
MoreDetailedEquivalences
Thecommunicationprocessesofhumansociety,whenexaminedindetail,revealmanyequivalencestothespecializationsfoundinthephysicalorganismandintheloweranimalsocieties.Thediplomats,forinstance,ofasinglestatearestationedallovertheworldandsendmessagestoafewfocalpoints.Obviously,theseincomingreportsmovefromthemanytothefew,wheretheyinteractupononeanother.Lateron,thesequencespreadsfanwiseaccordingtoafew-to-manypattern,aswhenaforeignsecretarygivesaspeechinpublic,anarticleisputoutinthepress,oranewsfilmisdistributedtothetheaters.Thelinesleadingfromtheouterenvironmentofthestatearefunctionallyequivalenttotheafferentchannelsthatconveyincomingnervousimpulsestothecentralnervoussystemofasingleanimal,andtothemeansbywhichalarmisspreadamongaflock.Outgoing,orefferent,impulsesdisplaycorrespondingparallels.
Thecentralnervoussystemofthebodyisonlypartlyinvolvedintheentireflowofafferent-efferentimpulses.Thereareautomaticsystemsthatcanactononeanotherwithoutinvolvingthe“higher”centersatall.Thestabilityoftheinternalenvironmentismaintainedprincipallythroughthemediationofthevegetiveorautonomicspecializationsofthenervoussystem.Similarly,mostofthemessageswithinanystatedonotinvolvethecentralchannelsofcommunication.Theytakeplacewithinfamilies,neighborhoods,shops,fieldgangs,andotherlocalcontexts.Mostoftheeducationalprocessiscarriedonthesameway.
Afurthersetofsignificantequivalencesisrelatedtothecircuitsofcommunication,whicharepredominantlyone-wayortwo-way,dependinguponthedegreeofreciprocitybetweencommunicatorsandaudience.Or,toexpressitdifferently,two-waycommunicationoccurswhenthesendingandreceivingfunctionsareperformedwithequalfrequencybytwoormorepersons.Aconversationisusuallyassumedtobeapatternoftwo-waycommunication(althoughmonologuesarehardlyunknown).Themoderninstrumentsofmasscommunicationgiveanenormousadvantagetothecontrollersofprintingplants,broadcastingequipment,andotherformsoffixedandspecializedcapital.Butitshouldbenotedthataudiencesdo“talkback,”aftersomedelay;andmanycontrollersofmassmediausescientifi