语言学《新编简明英语语言学教程》复习资料.doc
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Chapter1
Linguistics:
thescientificstudyoflanguage.（定义）
GeneralLinguistics:
Phonetics:
thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds
Phonology:
soundpatternsoflanguages
Morphology:
theformofwords
Syntax:
therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.
Semantics:
themeaningoflanguage
Pragmatics:
themeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguage
Languevs.parole（F.deSaussure）语言和言语（定义）
Langue:
theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.
Parole:
therealizationoflangueinactualuse.
Competenceandperformance（Chomsky）语言能力和语言应用（定义）
Competence:
theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage
Performance:
theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication
HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?
（相似点，不同点）
SimilartoSaussure,Chomskythinkswhatlinguistsshouldstudyistheidealuser’scompetence,nothisperformanceistoohaphazardtobestudied.
Sothetaskofthelinguistsshoulddiscoverandspecifyrules.
TwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.
Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.（定义）
（语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。
）
Thedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguage（CharlesHockettin1960）（定义）
Arbitrariness（任意性）:
Nologicalconnectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.（定义）
Productivity/Creativity（能产性/创造性）:
Peculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.（定义）
Duality:
Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.（定义）
Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.
Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword（doublearticulation）
Displacement（定义）Culturaltransmission
Chapter2
Phonetics（语音学）（定义）
Phonetics:
thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:
itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音）
Threebranchesofphonetics:
articulatoryphonetics（发音）auditoryphonetics（听觉）acousticphonetics（声学）
Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds：
BroadtranscriptionandNarrowtranscription
AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet（IPA）.ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.
Phonetics&phonology：
（定义，区别）
Bothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage:
thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.
Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;（itaimstoanswerquestionslike:
howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.）
Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.
Phone（音素）Phoneme（音位）Allophone（音位变体）:
（定义）
Phone:
aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment（音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段）
Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.
Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,andsomedon’t
Phoneme:
aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue,itisanabstractunit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）
Allophones:
thedifferentphonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素）
Suprasegmentalfeatures（超切分特征）:
stress（重音）tone声调）intonation（语调）
Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments
Chapter3
Morphology（形态学）（定义）
Morphology:
Thepartofthegrammarthatisconcernedwithwordformationandwordstructure
Morpheme:
theminimalunitofmeaning.（定义）
Allomorphs:
asetofmorphs,allofwhichareversionsofonemorpheme,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.
Freemorpheme&boundmorpheme（定义，会用，选择）
Freemorpheme:
isonethatmayconstituteaword（freeform）byitself.
Boundmorpheme:
cannotnormallystandalone,butwhicharetypicallyattachedtoanotherform.（Onethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,“al”in“national”.）
Derivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorpheme
Derivationalmorphemes:
themorphemeswhichchangethecategoryorgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern---modernizelength---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.
Inflectionalmorphemes:
themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.
a）Number:
tablesapplescars
b）Person,finitenessandaspect:
talk/talks/talking/talked
c）Case:
John/John’s
Root（词根）Stem（词干）Base（根基）（定义，会用，选择）
Root:
Arootisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixes（inflectional&derivational）areremoved,e.g.“desire”in“desirable”,“care”in“carefully”.
Stem:
Astemispartofaword-formwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved,e.g.“undesirable”inundesirables.
Base:
Abaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansanystemandrootcanbetermedasabase.
Thedifferencebetweenroot,stem&base
Order:
root（stem）+derivational+inflectional词根/词干+派生+曲折
Abasecanbeaddedbybothinflectional&derivationalaffixeswhileastemcanbeaddedonlybyinflectionalaffixes;
Abaseisderivationallyanalyzable（e.g.undesiredinundesirable）whilearootcannotbefurtheranalyzed,e.g.desireinundesirable;
Root,stemandbasecanbethesameform,e.g.desireindesired;
Undesirableinundesirablesiseitherastemorabase;
Desirableinundesirableisonlyabase.
Chapter4
Syntax（句法学）（定义）
Syntax:
Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.
（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支）
Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures
Phrasecategories----thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasnounphrase:
NP（N）,verbphrase:
VP（V）,adjectivephrase:
AP（A）,andprepositional:
PP（P）.
Thestructure:
specifier+head+complement
Head（中心语）----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformed
Specifier（标志成分）----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheads
Complement（补足成分）----thewordsontherightsideoftheheads
Phrasestructurerules:
Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule,suchas:
NP（Det限定词）+N+（PP）……e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.
VP（Qual修饰词）+V+（NP）……e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.
AP（Deg程度词）+A+（PP）……veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,verycloseto
PP（Deg）+P+（NP）……ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation
S→NPVP（Asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase）
Doinsertion:
InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.
Chapter5Semantics（语义学）（定义）
Semantics:
thestudyofmeaningfromthelinguisticpointofview（对意义的研究）
thenamingtheory命名论→Plato
theconceptualistview概念论:
Semantictriangle→OgdenandRichards
Thought/referenceàconcept思想/指称
Symbol/Form（words）符号/形式Referentà（realobject）所指
Contextualism语境论→JohnFirth
Behaviorism→Bloomfield行为主义论basedoncontextualistview
S:
stimulusr:
response
JillJack
S---------r………s---------R
（Thesmalllettersr,sàspeech）（ThecapitalizedletterR,Sàpracticalevents）
Sense（意义）andreference（所指/指称）（定义）
Sense:
isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofalinguisticform,thecollectionofallitsfeatures;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.
Reference:
meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.
Synonymy同义现象:
Thesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning
A.dialectalsynonyms方言同义词synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects（美式/英式英语）
B.stylisticsynonyms文体同义词synonymsdifferinginstyle（问题、正式度不同）
C.synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning情感或评价意义不同同义词（褒贬义）
D.collocationalsynonyms搭配同义词（词语搭配、用法）
E.semanticallydifferentsynonyms语义不同的同义词（意义上稍有不同）
Antonymy反义词:
oppositeness
Senserelationsbetweensentences
1）XissynonymouswithY.
X:
Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:
Henevergotmarriedallhislife.
X:
Theboykilledthecat.Y:
Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.
IfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.
2）XisinconsistentwithY.
X:
ThisismyfirstvisittoBeijing.
Y:
IhavebeentoBeijingtwice.
3）XentailsY.
X:
Johnmarriedablondheiress.
Y:
Johnmarriedablond.
X:
MarryhasbeentoBeijing.
Y:
MarryhasbeentoChina.
Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.
IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.
4）XpresupposesY.（YisprerequisiteofX.）
X:
Hisbikeneedsrepairing.
Y:
Hehasabike
IfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.
5）Xisacontradiction
*Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.
6）Xissemanticallyanomalous
*Thetablehasbadintentions.
Componentialanalysis:
awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.
Predicationanalysis:
awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning.（BritishG.Leech）.
Predication:
theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.
Apredicati
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