（SaussureandChomskythinkrule>languagefact）
Traditionalgrammer&modernlinguistics
4.Whatislanguage?
Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication
5.Designfeaturesoflanguage语言的识别特征CharlesHockett
①Arbitrariness（任意性）referstotheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheir
meaning.（soundsandmeanings）
②Productivity/creativity（能产性）:
Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossiblethe
constructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers
③Duality（双重性）:
Thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsofthe
primarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasits
ownprinciplesoforganization..
④Displacement（移位性）:
HumanLanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsand
conceptswhicharenotpresent（intimeandspace）atmomentofcommunication.
⑤Culturaltransmission（文化传承性）人独有。
动物为基因传承
6.Functionsoflanguage
Mainfunction：
Descreptivefunction描述功能，expressivefunction表达功能，socialfunction社会功能
6basicfunction（RomanJakobson）
①addresser-Emotive（情感功能）:
toexpressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker
②addressee-Conative（意动功能）
③Context-referential（指称功能）
④.message-poetic（诗性功能）.
⑤contact-Phaticcommunion（寒暄交流）
⑥Metalingualfunction（元语言功能）:
Halliday–childlanguage：
theideational概念功能，theinterpersonal交际功能，thetextual语篇功能
第二章Phology语音学
Threebranches：
articulatoryphonetics发音语言学，auditoryphonetics听觉语音学，acoustic
phonetics声学语音学。
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Organsofspeech：
pharyngealcavity咽腔:
voiced浊辅音，voiceless清辅音
oralcavity口腔，
nasalcavity鼻腔。
Broad&narrowtranscription
classificationofenglishspeechsound：
phonology音系学名词解释
Phonetics语音学isofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhuman
languages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:
howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeach
other,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified
Phonology音系学aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatterns,andhow
thesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.
Aphone音素----aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduring
linguisticcommunicationareallphones.
Aphoneme音位----isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,nota
particularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.the
phoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyinpeakandspeak.
Allophones音位变体----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphonetic
environments.（complementarydistribution互补分布）
e.g.thephoneme[l]inEnglishcanberealizedasdark[l],clear[l],whichareallophonesofthe
phoneme[l].
Phonemiccontrast音位对立----twodifferentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,
e.g./b/and/p/in[bIt]and[pIt].
Complementarydistribution互补分布----allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementary
distribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.
dark[l]&clear[l],aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p].
Minimalpair最小对立体---whentwodifferentformsareidentical（thesame）ineveryway
exceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosound
combinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.
Somerulesinphonelogy
Sequentialrules序列规则
Assimilationrule同化规则
Deletionrule省略规则
Suprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征
stress，tone，intonation
第三章Morphology（形态学）:
refertothepartofthegrammarthatisconcernedwithformation
andwordstructure.
Closedclasswords:
conjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronounsconsistofthe“grammatical”
or“functional”words.
Words---thesmallestfreeformfoundinlanguage.
Morpheme---thesmallestunitoflanguagethatcarriesinformationaboutmeaningorfunction.
Phoneme音位:
thesmallestmeaningfulunitofsound:
/p,b/
Morpheme词素:
thesmallestmeaningfulunitingrammar:
-s,a-,-lessun-
Freemorpheme自由词素----isonethatmayconstituteaword（freeform）byitself
Boundmorpheme黏着词素----isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycan
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notstandbythemselves
Allomorph词素变体---morphemesmayhavedifferentforms.（:
aandan.）Thevariantformsofa
morphemearesaidtobetheallomorphsofthemorpheme
Root---thecoreofthewordsthatcarriesthemajorcomponentsofmeaning.
Affix---boundmorphemes.
Prefix----morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers
Suffix----morphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers
Root---Arootisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixes（inflectional&derivational）are
removed
Stem---Astemispartofaword-formwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeen
removed,
Base---Abaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansanystemand
rootcanbetermedasabase.
Derivationalmorphemes派生词素----themorphemeswhichcanchangethecategory,or
grammaticalclassofwords
Inflectionalmorphemes屈折词素----theboundmorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurely
grammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon,（tables,talked,
John's）
morphologicalrules---thewayswordsareformed.
能产性词法规则productivemorphologicalrulesDerivation（派生法）---anaffixationprocessthatformsawordwithameaningand/orcategory
fromthatofitsbases.
Compounds（合成法）
第四章Syntax（句法）----
therulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.
Category（范畴）---referstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctions
inaparticularlanguage
syntacticcategories---Afundamentalfactaboutwordsinhumanlanguagesisthattheycanbe
groupedintoarelativesmallnumber.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyarethe
word-levelcategories（traditionally,partsofspeech）
Majorlexicalcategories主要词法范畴:
n.,v.,adj.,Prep.
MinorLexicalcategories次要词法范畴:
det.（a,the,）,deg.（修饰介词，形容词so,very）,Qual.（修饰动词often，almost）,Aux（must,should）,Conj.（and,but,or）
Threecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined:
meaning,inflectionanddistribution.
Phrase---thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategory.
Thestructureofphrases:
specifier标志语+head中心词+complement补语
Head----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformed
Specifier----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheads
Complement----thewordsontherightsideoftheheads
Aphrasestructurerule短语结构规则----Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthe
arrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase
1）TheXPruleXP规则
（specifier）X（complement）
2）Coordinationrule并列规则---thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelements
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ofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunction.
XP→（Spec）（Mod）X（Complement*）（Mod）Modifiers修饰语
S?
NPVP
Inflisanabstractcategoryinflection（dubbed‘Infl'）astheirheads,whichindicatesthesentence's
tense（时态）andagreement（一致）.（Infl.--will,Pst）.
Auxiliarymovement（inversion）---Atransformation,aspecialtypeofrulethatcanmovean
elementfromonepositiontoanother,whichisknownasinversion倒置.
TheauxililarymovesfromtheheadInflpositioninInflPintotheheadCpositioninCP.Such
typeofinversionoperationinvolvingthemovementofawordfromtheheadpositioninone
phraseintotheheadpositioninanotherisknownasheadmovement中心词移位.
Doinsertion（do插入）----InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.
第五章semantics语义学
Semantics----thestudyoflanguagemeaning.
Whatismeaning?
Meaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication.
Someviews：
Namingtheory（Plato）
---Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.
Theconceptualistview（OgdenandRichards:
semantictriangle）
Thesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements（wordsandphrases）;Thereferentreferstothe
objectintheworldofexperience;Thoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.
Contextualism（JRFirth）
1.Situationalcontext场景语境:
spatiotemporal时空的situation2.Linguisticcontext:
co-text互文，theprobabilityofaword'sco-occurrenceorcollocation.
Behaviorism（Bloomfield）
Lexicalmeaning：
名词解释
Sense----isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofall
thefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaning
dictionarycompilersareinterestedin.
Reference----whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththe
relationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.
Majorsenserelations
1）Synonymy同义关系：
Dialectalsynonyms方言同义词，Stylisticsynonyms-文体同义词，differintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning:
thesamemeaningbutdifferentemotions:
，
Collocationalsynonyms搭配同义词，Semanticallydifferentsynonyms,语义程度不同
2）Polysemy一词多义
3）Homonymy同形同音异义关系
4）Hyponymy上下位关系
等级反义词，old-young：
GradableantonymsComplementary
义关系）5Antonymy反互补反义词，关系反义词wife-husbandmale-femaleantonymsRelationalopposites
Senserelationsbetweensentences
同义1）XissynonymouswithY不一致XisinconsistentwithY2）
蕴含XentailsY3）
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预设4）XpresupposesY
矛盾5）Xisacontradiction语义反常6）Xissemanticallyanomalous
Analysisofmeaning
Componential
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