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1.Whatisliterature?

Literature（fromLatinlitterae（plural）;letter）istheartofwrittenworkandcan,insomecircumstances,referexclusivelytopublishedsources.Thewordliteratureliterallymeans"thingsmadefromletters"andtheparsprotototerm"letters"issometimesusedtosignify"literature,"asinthefiguresofspeech"artsandletters"and"manofletters."Literatureiscommonlyclassifiedashavingtwomajorforms—fictionandnon-fiction—andtwomajortechniques—poetryandpros

Literaturemayconsistoftextsbasedonfactualinformation（journalisticornon-fiction）,aswellasonoriginalimagination,suchaspolemicalworksaswellasautobiography,andreflectiveessaysaswellasbelles-lettres.Literaturecanbeclassifiedaccordingtohistoricalperiods,genres,andpoliticalinfluences.

Theconceptofgenre,whichearlierwaslimited,hasbroadenedoverthecenturies.Agenreconsistsofartisticworkswhichfallwithinacertaincentraltheme,andexamplesofgenreincluderomance,mystery,crime,fantasy,erotica,andadventure,amongothers.ImportanthistoricalperiodsinEnglishliteratureincludeOldEnglish,MiddleEnglish,theRenaissance,the17thCenturyShakespeareanandElizabethantimes,the18thCenturyRestoration,19thCenturyVictorian,and20thCenturyModernism.Importantintellectualmovementsthathaveinfluencedthestudyofliteratureincludefeminism,post-colonialism,psychoanalysis,post-structuralism,post-modernism,romanticism,andMarxism.

Philosophical,historical,journalistic,andscientificwritingsaretraditionallyrankedasliterature.Theyoffersomeoftheoldestprosewritingsinexistence;novelsandprosestoriesearnedthenames"fiction"todistinguishthemfromfactualwritingornonfiction,whichwritershistoricallyhavecraftedinprose.

[edit]Naturalscience

Asadvancesandspecializationhavemadenewscientificresearchinaccessibletomostaudiences,the"literary"natureofsciencewritinghasbecomelesspronouncedoverthelasttwocenturies.Now,scienceappearsmostlyinjournals.ScientificworksofAristotle,Copernicus,andNewtonstillpossessgreatvalue,butsincethescienceinthemhaslargelybecomeoutdated,theynolongerserveforscientificinstruction.Yet,theyremaintootechnicaltositwellinmostprogrammesofliterarystudy.Outsideof"historyofscience"programmes,studentsrarelyreadsuchworks.

[edit]Philosophy

Philosophy,too,hasbecomeanincreasinglyacademicdiscipline.Moreofitspractitionerslamentthissituationthanoccurswiththesciences;nonethelessmostnewphilosophicalworkappearsinacademicjournals.Majorphilosophersthroughhistory—Plato,Aristotle,Socrates,Augustine,Descartes,Kierkegaard,Nietzsche—havebecomeascanonicalasanywriters.Somerecentphilosophyworksarearguedtomeritthetitle"literature",suchassomeoftheworksbySimonBlackburn;butmuchofitdoesnot,andsomeareas,suchaslogic,havebecomeextremelytechnicaltoadegreesimilartothatofmathematics.

[edit]History

Agreatdealofhistoricalwritingranksasliterature,particularlythegenreknownascreativenonfiction.Socanagreatdealofjournalism,suchasliteraryjournalism.Howevertheseareashavebecomeextremelylarge,andoftenhaveaprimarilyutilitarianpurpose:

torecorddataorconveyimmediateinformation.Asaresultthewritinginthesefieldsoftenlacksaliteraryquality,althoughitoftenandinitsbettermomentshasthatquality.Major"literary"historiansincludeHerodotus,ThucydidesandProcopius,allofwhomcountascanonicalliteraryfigures.

[edit]Law

Lawoffersalessclearcase.SomewritingsofPlatoandAristotle,thelawtablesofHammurabiofBabylon,oreventheearlypartsoftheBiblecouldbeseenaslegalliterature.RomancivillawascodifiedintheCorpusJurisCivilisduringthereignofJustinianIoftheByzantineEmpirehasareputationassignificantliterature.Thefoundingdocumentsofmanycountries,includingConstitutionsandLawCodes,cancountasliterature;however,mostlegalwritingsrarelyexhibitmuchliterarymerit,astheytendtoberathergarrulous.

[edit]Drama

Amagiccarpet,wasalegendarycarpetthatcanbeusedtotransportpersonswhoareonitinstantaneouslyorquicklytotheirdestinationinthestoriesoftheOneThousandandOneNights.

Aplayordramaoffersanotherclassicalliteraryformthathascontinuedtoevolveovertheyears.Itgenerallycompriseschieflydialoguebetweencharacters,andusuallyaimsatdramatic/theatricalperformance（seetheatre）ratherthanatreading.Duringthe18thand19thcenturies,operadevelopedasacombinationofpoetry,drama,andmusic.Nearlyalldramatookverseformuntilcomparativelyrecently.Shakespearecouldbeconsidereddrama.RomeoandJuliet,forexample,isaclassicromanticdramagenerallyacceptedasliterature.

Greekdramaexemplifiestheearliestformofdramaofwhichwehavesubstantialknowledge.Tragedy,asadramaticgenre,developedasaperformanceassociatedwithreligiousandcivicfestivals,typicallyenactingordevelopinguponwell-knownhistoricalormythologicalthemes.Tragediesgenerallypresentedveryseriousthemes.Withtheadventofnewertechnologies,scriptswrittenfornon-stagemediahavebeenaddedtothisform.WaroftheWorlds（radio）in1938sawtheadventofliteraturewrittenforradiobroadcast,andmanyworksofDramahavebeenadaptedforfilmortelevision.Conversely,television,film,andradioliteraturehavebeenadaptedtoprintedorelectronicmedia.

[edit]Oralliterature

Thetermoralliteraturerefersnottowritten,buttooraltraditions,whichincludesdifferenttypesofepic,poetryanddrama,folktales,ballads.Howevertheuseofthisoxymoroniscontroversialandnotgenerallyacceptedbythescientificcommunity.Someprefertoavoidtheetymologicalquestionusing"oralnarrativetradition","oralsacredtradition","oralpoetry"ordirectlyusingepicsorpoetry（termsthatdonotnecessarilyimplywriting）,othersprefertocreateneologismsasorature.

[edit]Othernarrativeforms

∙Electronicliteratureisaliterarygenreconsistingofworkswhichoriginateindigitalenvironments.

∙Films,videosandbroadcastsoapoperashavecarvedoutanichewhichoftenparallelsthefunctionalityofprosefiction.

∙Graphicnovelsandcomicbookspresentstoriestoldinacombinationofsequentialartwork,dialogueandtext.

[edit]Genresofliterature

Furtherinformation:

Listofliterarygenres

Literarygenreisamodeofcategorisingliterature.ThetermoriginatesfromFrench,designatingaproposedtypeorclass.[4]However,suchclassesaresubjecttochange,andhavebeenusedindifferentwaysindifferentperiodsandtraditions.

[edit]Literarytechniques

Mainarticle:

Literarytechnique

Aliterarytechniqueorliterarydevicecanbeusedbyauthorsinordertoenhancethewrittenframeworkofapieceofliterature,andproducespecificeffects.Literarytechniquesencompassawiderangeofapproachestocraftingawork:

whetheraworkisnarratedinfirst-personorfromanotherperspective,whethertouseatraditionallinearnarrativeoranonlinearnarrative,orthechoiceofliterarygenre,areallexamplesofliterarytechnique.Theymayindicatetoareaderthatthereisafamiliarstructureandpresentationtoawork,suchasaconventionalmurder-mysterynovel;or,theauthormaychoosetoexperimentwiththeirtechniquetosurprisethereader.

Inthisway,useofatechniquecanleadtothedevelopmentofanewgenre,aswasthecasewithoneofthefirstmodernnovels,PamelabySamuelRichardson.Pamelaiswrittenasacollectionofletter-writingcorrespondence,called"epistolarytechnique";byusingthistechnique,Pamelastrengthenedthetraditionoftheepistolarynovel,agenrewhichhadbeenpracticedforsometimealreadybutwithoutthesameacclaim.

Literarytechniqueisdistinguishedfromliterarydevice,asmilitarytacticsaredistinguishedfrommilitarystrategy.Devicesarespecificconstructionswithinthenarrativethatmakeiteffective.Examplesincludemetaphor,simile,ellipsis,narrativemotifs,andallegory.Evensimplewordplayfunctionsasaliterarydevice.Thenarrativemodemaybeconsideredaliterarydevice,suchastheuseofstream-of-consciousnessnarrative.

Literarycriticismimpliesacritiqueandevaluationofapieceofliteratureand,insomecases,itisusedtoimproveaworkinprogressoraclassicalpiece,aswithanongoingtheatreproduction.Literaryeditorscanserveasimilarpurposefortheauthorswithwhomtheywork.Therearemanytypesofliterarycriticismandeachcanbeusedtocritiqueapieceinadifferentwayorcritiqueadifferentaspectofapiece.

[edit]Legalstatus

[edit]UK

Literaryworkshavebeenprotectedbycopyrightlawfromunauthorisedreproductionsinceatleast1710.[5]Literaryworksaredefinedbycopyrightlawtomeananywork,otherthanadramaticormusicalwork,whichiswritten,spokenorsung,andaccordinglyincludes（a）atableorcompilation（otherthanadatabase）,（b）acomputerprogram,（c）preparatorydesignmaterialforacomputerprogram,and（d）adatabase.

Itshouldbenotedthatliteraryworksarenotlimitedtoworksofliterature,butincludeallworksexpressedinprintorwriting（otherthandramaticormusicalworks）.[6]

2。

中国朦胧诗

朦胧诗派：

70年代末80年代初出现的诗派，其代表人物有北岛、舒婷、顾城、江河、杨炼等。

作为一个创作群体，“朦胧诗”并没有形成统一的组织形式，也未曾发表宣言，然而却以各自独立又呈现出共性的艺术主张和创作实绩，构成一个“崛起的诗群”。

关于朦胧诗曾在当时文坛引起论争。

“朦胧诗”精神内涵的三个层面是：

一揭露黑暗和社会批判，二是在黑暗中寻找光明，反思与探求意识以及浓厚的英雄主义色彩，三是在人道主义基础上建立起来的对“人”的特别关注。

“朦胧诗”改写了以往诗歌单纯描摹“现实”与图解政策的传统模式，把诗歌作为探求人生的重要方式，在哲学意义上达到了前所未有的高度。

从某种意义上讲，“朦胧诗”的崛起，也是中国文学生命之树的崛起。

朦胧诗派

1980年开始，诗坛出现了一个新的诗派，被称为“朦胧派”。

以舒婷、顾城、北岛、江河等为先驱者的一群青年诗人，“朦胧诗派”并没有形成统一的组织形式，也未曾发表宣言，然而