语言学.docx

语言学.docx

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语言学

语言学复习资料

1.3DesignFeaturesofLanguage<一个名词解释example一个问答>

Definition：

ThefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalledDesignFeatures.

<1>Arbitrariness任意性

Itreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表现的意义没有天然的联系。

Example:

thedogbarksbowwowinEnglishbut汪汪汪inChinese.

<2>Duality 二层性

Itmeansthepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。

Example:

tensofthousandsofwordsoutofasmallsetofsounds,around48inthecaseoftheEnglishlanguage.Andoutofthehugenumberofwords,therecanbeendlessnumberofsentences,whichinturncanformunlimitednumberoftexts.

<3>Creativity创造性

Itmeanslanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.创造性指语言的能产性，这来源于二层性和递归性。

Example:

Wecanwriteasentencelikethefollowingandgoonendlessly:

Heboughtabook.Heboughtabookwhichwaswrittenbyateacherwhotaughtinaschool…

<4>Displacement移位性

Itmeansthehumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent（intimeandspace）atthemomentofcommunication.是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间及观点。

Example:

IcanrefertoConfucius,ortheNorthPole,eventhoughthefirsthasbeendeadforover2550yearsandthesecondissituatedfarawayfromus.

1.4FunctionsofLanguage判断、选择、填空

Informative信息功能—是语言的主导功能如解决一个数学问题是大声讲出思想；说话者在真实世界经验等

InterpersonalFunction人际功能—最重要的社会功能，如称呼他人和指代自己的方式（亲爱的先生、你的等）

Performative施为功能—为了改变人的社会地位，如婚礼、祈福命名、诅咒等非常正式甚至仪式化的

EmotiveFunction感情功能—对事情言语反应如god、damnit等

PhaticCommunion寒暄功能—blessyou、thankyou等

RecreationalFunction娱乐功能—歌曲对唱、婴儿牙牙学语等

MetalingualFunction元语言功能—如字典里用英文解释英文

1.6WhatIsLinguistics?

1.9ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics

<1>Descriptivevs.Prescriptive描写式vs规定式

Thedistinctionliestheprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.区别在于规定式说明事情应该如何而描写式描述事情本事怎样。

<2>Synchronicvs.Diachronic共时vs历时

ASynchronicdescriptiontakesafixedinstant（usually,butnotnecessarily,thepresent）asitspointofobservation.Diachroniclinguisticisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.共时的描写取特定的时刻（通常为当下，但不唯一）作为观察点，历时语言学是在语言的历史演化中研究语言。

<3>Langue&Parole语言与言语

Saussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics（utterances）asLangueandParole.用语言和言语来区分说话者的语言能力和语言上（表达）的实际表现或语料。

<4>CompetenceandPerformance语言能力和语言运用

Alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledhislinguisticcompetence.Andperformancereferstotheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.一名语言使用者对于语言规则系统的潜在意识成为他的语言能力，而语言运用指在具体场景中语言的实际运用。

2.1.1SpeechOrgans

5organs:

thelungs,thetrachea,thethroat,thenose,andthemouth

2.2.1ConsonantsandVowels

Consonantsareproduced“byaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction”.“声音紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到气流无法排出，一旦排出就会产生可闻的摩擦”，这样产生的音叫辅音。

Vowelsareproducedwith“airescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose”.气流可以相对不受阻碍地从口腔或者鼻腔中排出的音叫元音。

区分phonemesallophonesmorphemes

Minimalpairs

2.5.1TheSyllableStructure音节结构

AwordmaybeMonosyllabic单音节如cat、dog等orPolysyllabic多音节如festival等；AsyllablemusthaveaNucleus节核orPeak韵峰；wecandivideasyllableintotwoparts,theRhyme韵基andtheOnset节首.Thevowelwithintherhymeisthenucleus,withtheconsonantafterittermedtheCoda节尾.AsyllablethathasnocodaiscalledanOpenSyllable开音节whileasyllablewithcodaisClosedSyllable闭音节.

2.5.2Stress

Itreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.

2.5.3Intonation语调

Intonationinvolvestheoccurrenceofrecurringfall-risepatterns.升降

2.5.4Tone声调

3.2.1MorphemeandMorphology语素和形态学

Morphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsoftherelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.

Morphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.形态学研究词的内部结构和构造规则。

3.2.2TypesofMorphemes都要example

<1>FreemorphemeandBoundmorpheme

Freemorpheme:

thosethatmayoccuralone,thatis,thosewhichmaymakeupwordsbythemselves,areFreemorpheme.e.g.dog,nation,close,teacher,child…

Boundmorpheme:

thosecannotoccuralone,mustappearwithatleastanothermorphemearecalledBoundmorpheme.e.g.-sindogs,-alinnational,-disindisplay…

<2>Root,affixandstem

Rootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtherbeanalyzedwithoutdestroyingitsmeaning.Itmaybeafreeorboundmorpheme.

e.g.internationalinter-and–al去掉剩下的nation是root

root=word–affixallwordscontainarootmorpheme

Affixisacollectivetermforthetypeofmorphemethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme（therootorstem）,soaffixisnaturallybound.所有affix都是boundmorpheme.prefixsuffixinfix

Stemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded,sofriend-infriends,andfriendship-infriendshipsarebothstems.

<3>Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix屈折词缀和派生词缀

First:

Inflectionalaffixoftenonlyaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalfunctiontothestem,forinstance,thoseinflectionalaffixesinwordssuchastoys,walks,John’s.屈折词缀的作用在于生产同一词素的不同形式。

Derivationalaffixesareveryproductiveinmakingnewwords.

E.g.reciterecitationrecital

ThedifferencebetweenInflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix

Second:

inflectionalaffixesdonotchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,suchasflowerflowers,whereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot,suchassmallandsmallness.Derivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning.

Third:

whetheroneshouldaddinflectionalaffixesornotdependsveryoftenontheotherfactorswithinthephraseorsentence.Forinstance,likesintheboylikesto…determinedbytheboy.Derivationalaffixesaremoreoftenbasedonsimplemeaningdistinctions.选clever还是cleverness取决于是性质还是状态。

Last：

inflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal（e.g.drums,walks,Mary’s）.Butderivationalaffixescanbothbeprefixes（e.g.suburban,depart,online）andsuffixes（e.g.slaver,teacher）

3.2.3InflectionandWordFormation

<1>Inflectionindicatesgrammaticalrelationsbyaddinginflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspect,andcase,thegrammaticalclassofthestemswillnotchange.

table/tablestalk/talks/talking/talkedboy/boy’s

<2>Wordformation-twotypes

ⅰCompoundreferstothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform.day+break=daybreak（N+V）playboy（V+N）windmill（N+N）

Compound-endocentriccompound向心复合词andtheexocentriccompound离心复合词离心的名词性复合词由V+N、V+A、V+P构成；形容词性复合词由V+N、V+A

ⅱDerivation派生showsarelationshipbetweenrootsandaffixes.

un+conscious=unconsciousnation+al=national

3.2.3Sememevs.Morpheme,andPhonemevs.Morpheme书本P68

3.3.1LexicalChangeProper（判断）

<1>Invention发明法—Coke、nylon、Kodak柯达

<2>Blending混成法—第一个单词开头和第二个结尾或两单词开头

smoke+fog=smogboat+hotel=boatelbreakfast+lunch=brunch

<3>Abbreviation缩写词—advertisement-adbicycle-bikefanatic-fan

<4>Acronym缩略语ismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.

WB-WorldBankWTO-WorldTradeOrganization

<5>Back-formation逆构词法—较长的单词删去想象中的词缀变短

editor-editcalmative-calmfreeassociation—free-associate

<6>Analogicalcreation类推构词

work—wrought—workedslay—slew—slayed

<7>Borrowing借词

ⅰLoanwords借词，形式form和意义meaning都是借用的

如从汉语借来的tea茶

ⅱLoanblend混合借词,一部分本国语，一部分外借，但意义全部借来

如coconut椰子（西班牙语）Chinatown唐人街（汉语）

ⅲLoanshift转移借词，意义借用，形式本国

如bridge借自意大利语ponteartificialsatellite借自俄语sputnik

ⅳLoantranslation翻译借词，每个语素或单词都从另一个对等翻译

如almighty从拉丁语ominpotensfreeverse从拉丁语verselibre

3.3.3SemanticChange语义变化（判断）

ⅰBroadening词义扩大fromspecificsensetogeneralone具体到概括

如birdyoungbird—anykindofbird

tasktaximposed—apieceofwork

ⅱNarrowing词义缩小

如camp野外—露营地

cattle家畜—牛

girl年轻人—女孩

ⅲMeaningshift词义转移—如bead祈祷—念珠—玻璃质料的珠子

ⅳClassshift词性转换—如engineer名词为工程师，动词为设计

ⅴFolkctymology俗词源—对词源错误理解却更熟悉而产生新意义

如西班牙语cucaracha（一种歌舞）变成英语cockroach（蟑螂）

4.2.3EndocentricandExocentricConstruction向心结构和离心结构

Endocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinableCentreorHead.向心结构是指该结构的分布在功能上相当它的一个或多个成分，即一个词或词组可确定为中心或中心词。

如名词短语、动词短语、形容词短语

thesetwooldeststonebridges（head）willbeleaving（head）

Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinableCentreorHeadinsidethegroup.词组内的任何一个词在功能上不等于整个词组，在词组内部没有确定的中心或中心词。

Theboysmiled.Hekickedtheball.Johnseemedangry.

两道大题二选一

7.Useexamplestoillustratedifferentwaystoextendsyntacticconstituents.

9.ExplainthemaincharacteristicsofsubjectsinEnglish.