Aristotles Rhetoric book 2.docx

Aristotles Rhetoric book 2.docx

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Rhetoric

ByAristotle

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Rhetoric

ByAristotle

Written350B.C.E

TranslatedbyW.RhysRoberts

TableofContents

BookII

Part1

Wehavenowconsideredthematerialstobeusedinsupportingoropposinga

politicalmeasure,inpronouncingeulogiesorcensures,andforprosecution

anddefenceinthelawcourts.Wehaveconsideredthereceivedopinionson

whichwemaybestbaseourargumentssoastoconvinceourhearers-those

opinionswithwhichourenthymemesdeal,andoutofwhichtheyarebuilt,in

eachofthethreekindsoforatory,accordingtowhatmaybecalledthe

specialneedsofeach.

Butsincerhetoricexiststoaffectthegivingofdecisions-thehearersdecide

betweenonepoliticalspeakerandanother,andalegalverdictisa

decision-theoratormustnotonlytrytomaketheargumentofhisspeech

demonstrativeandworthyofbelief;hemustalsomakehisowncharacterlook

rightandputhishearers,whoaretodecide,intotherightframeofmind.

Particularlyinpoliticaloratory,butalsoinlawsuits,itaddsmuchtoan

orator'sinfluencethathisowncharactershouldlookrightandthatheshould

bethoughttoentertaintherightfeelingstowardshishearers;andalsothat

hishearersthemselvesshouldbeinjusttherightframeofmind.Thatthe

orator'sowncharactershouldlookrightisparticularlyimportantin

politicalspeaking:

thattheaudienceshouldbeintherightframeofmind,in

lawsuits.Whenpeoplearefeelingfriendlyandplacable,theythinkonesort

ofthing;whentheyarefeelingangryorhostile,theythinkeithersomething

totallydifferentorthesamethingwithadifferentintensity:

whentheyfeel

friendlytothemanwhocomesbeforethemforjudgement,theyregardhimas

havingdonelittlewrong,ifany;whentheyfeelhostile,theytakethe

oppositeview.Again,iftheyareeagerfor,andhavegoodhopesof,athing

thatwillbepleasantifithappens,theythinkthatitcertainlywillhappen

andbegoodforthem:

whereasiftheyareindifferentorannoyed,theydonot

thinkso.

Therearethreethingswhichinspireconfidenceintheorator'sown

character-thethree,namely,thatinduceustobelieveathingapartfromany

proofofit:

goodsense,goodmoralcharacter,andgoodwill.Falsestatements

andbadadviceareduetooneormoreofthefollowingthreecauses.Men

eitherformafalseopinionthroughwantofgoodsense;ortheyformatrue

opinion,butbecauseoftheirmoralbadnessdonotsaywhattheyreallythink;

orfinally,theyarebothsensibleandupright,butnotwelldisposedtotheir

hearers,andmayfailinconsequencetorecommendwhattheyknowtobethe

bestcourse.Thesearetheonlypossiblecases.Itfollowsthatanyonewhois

thoughttohaveallthreeofthesegoodqualitieswillinspiretrustinhis

audience.Thewaytomakeourselvesthoughttobesensibleandmorallygood

mustbegatheredfromtheanalysisofgoodnessalreadygiven:

thewayto

establishyourowngoodnessisthesameasthewaytoestablishthatof

others.Goodwillandfriendlinessofdispositionwillformpartofour

discussionoftheemotions,towhichwemustnowturn.

TheEmotionsareallthosefeelingsthatsochangemenastoaffecttheir

judgements,andthatarealsoattendedbypainorpleasure.Suchareanger,

pity,fearandthelike,withtheiropposites.Wemustarrangewhatwehaveto

sayabouteachofthemunderthreeheads.Take,forinstance,theemotionof

anger:

herewemustdiscover

（1）whatthestateofmindofangrypeopleis,

（2）whothepeoplearewithwhomtheyusuallygetangry,and（3）onwhat

groundstheygetangrywiththem.Itisnotenoughtoknowoneoreventwoof

thesepoints;unlessweknowallthree,weshallbeunabletoarouseangerin

anyone.Thesameistrueoftheotheremotions.Sojustasearlierinthis

workwedrewupalistofusefulpropositionsfortheorator,letusnow

proceedinthesamewaytoanalysethesubjectbeforeus.

Part2

Angermaybedefinedasanimpulse,accompaniedbypain,toaconspicuous

revengeforaconspicuousslightdirectedwithoutjustificationtowardswhat

concernsoneselfortowardswhatconcernsone'sfriends.Ifthisisaproper

definitionofanger,itmustalwaysbefelttowardssomeparticular

individual,e.g.Cleon,andnot'man'ingeneral.Itmustbefeltbecausethe

otherhasdoneorintendedtodosomethingtohimoroneofhisfriends.It

mustalwaysbeattendedbyacertainpleasure-thatwhicharisesfromthe

expectationofrevenge.Forsincenobodyaimsatwhathethinkshecannot

attain,theangrymanisaimingatwhathecanattain,andthebeliefthatyou

willattainyouraimispleasant.Henceithasbeenwellsaidaboutwrath,

"Sweeteritisbyfarthanthehoneycomb

"drippingwithsweetness,

"Andspreadsthroughtheheartsofmen."

Itisalsoattendedbyacertainpleasurebecausethethoughtsdwelluponthe

actofvengeance,andtheimagesthencalledupcausepleasure,likethe

imagescalledupindreams.

Nowslightingistheactivelyentertainedopinionofsomethingasobviouslyof

noimportance.Wethinkbadthings,aswellasgoodones,haveserious

importance;andwethinkthesameofanythingthattendstoproducesuch

things,whilethosewhichhavelittleornosuchtendencyweconsider

unimportant.Therearethreekindsofslighting-contempt,spite,and

insolence.

（1）Contemptisonekindofslighting:

youfeelcontemptforwhat

youconsiderunimportant,anditisjustsuchthingsthatyouslight.

（2）

Spiteisanotherkind;itisathwartinganotherman'swishes,nottoget

somethingyourselfbuttopreventhisgettingit.Theslightarisesjustfrom

thefactthatyoudonotaimatsomethingforyourself:

clearlyyoudonot

thinkthathecandoyouharm,forthenyouwouldbeafraidofhiminsteadof

slightinghim,noryetthathecandoyouanygoodworthmentioning,forthen

youwouldbeanxioustomakefriendswithhim.（3）Insolenceisalsoaformof

slighting,sinceitconsistsindoingandsayingthingsthatcauseshameto

thevictim,notinorderthatanythingmayhappentoyourself,orbecause

anythinghashappenedtoyourself,butsimplyforthepleasureinvolved.

（Retaliationisnot'insolence',butvengeance.）Thecauseofthepleasure

thusenjoyedbytheinsolentmanisthathethinkshimselfgreatlysuperiorto

otherswhenill-treatingthem.Thatiswhyyouthsandrichmenareinsolent;

theythinkthemselvessuperiorwhentheyshowinsolence.Onesortofinsolence

istorobpeopleofthehonourduetothem;youcertainlyslightthemthus;

foritistheunimportant,forgoodorevil,thathasnohonourpaidtoit.So

Achillessaysinanger:

"Hehathtakenmyprizeforhimself

"andhathdonemedishonour,"

and

"Likeanalienhonouredbynone,"

meaningthatthisiswhyheisangry.Amanexpectstobespeciallyrespected

byhisinferiorsinbirth,incapacity,ingoodness,andgenerallyinanything

inwhichheismuchtheirsuperior:

aswheremoneyisconcernedawealthyman

looksforrespectfromapoorman;wherespeakingisconcerned,themanwitha

turnfororatorylooksforrespectfromonewhocannotspeak;theruler

demandstherespectoftheruled,andthemanwhothinksheoughttobea

rulerdemandstherespectofthemanwhomhethinksheoughttoberuling.

Henceithasbeensaid

"Greatisthewrathofkings,whosefatherisZeusalmighty,"

and

"Yea,buthisrancourabidethlongafterwardalso,"

theirgreatresentmentbeingduetotheirgreatsuperiority.Thenagainaman

looksforrespectfromthosewhohethinksowehimgoodtreatment,andthese

arethepeoplewhomhehastreatedoristreatingwell,ormeansorhasmeant

totreatwell,eitherhimself,orthroughhisfriends,orthroughothersat

hisrequest.

Itwillbeplainbynow,fromwhathasbeensaid,

（1）inwhatframeofmind,

（2）withwhatpersons,and（3）onwhatgroundspeoplegrowangry.

（1）The

frameofmindisthatofoneinwhichanypainisbeingfelt.Inthat

condition,amanisalwaysaimingatsomething.Whether,then,anotherman

opposeshimeitherdirectlyinanyway,asbypreventinghimfromdrinking

whenheisthirsty,orindirectly,theactappearstohimjustthesame;

whethersomeoneworksagainsthim,orfailstoworkwithhim,orotherwise

vexeshimwhileheisinthismood,heisequallyangryinallthesecases.

Hencepeoplewhoareafflictedbysicknessorpovertyorloveorthirstorany

otherunsatisfieddesiresarepronetoangerandeasilyroused:

especially

againstthosewhoslighttheirpresentdistress.Thusasickmanisangeredby

disregardofhisillness,apoormanbydisregardofhispoverty,amanaging

warbydisregardofthewarheiswaging,aloverbydisregardofhislove,

andsothroughout,anyothersortofslightbeingenoughifspecialslights

arewanting.Eachmanispredisposed,bytheemotionnowcontrollinghim,to

hisownparticularanger.Further,weareangeredifwehappentobeexpecting

acontraryresult:

foraquiteunexpectedevilisspeciallypainful,justas

th