在WTOGATS框架下关于教育服务贸易的协商外文翻译文档格式.docx
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egger,S.275-308
Author:
RaymondSanerandSylvieFasel
1ImportanceofTradeinEducationalServices
Tradeineducationalservices（ES）hasreceivedgrowingattentionandhaselicitedincreasinglyheatedreactionsbyvariousstakeholdersrangingfromgovernments,privatesectorinvestors,teachers’unionstostudentassociationsandparentorganizationsinOECDanddevelopingcountries.Thisarticlewilldescribesomeoftheissues,giveasummaryofthenegotiationprocesssofarwithintheWTOcontext,andoutlinepossibleavenuestoresolvetheconflictinginterestsoftradeineducationalservices.ThefollowingpointsdepictthegrowingimportanceoftradeinES:
（1）Thevalueofannualtradein1999inhighereducationserviceshasbeenestimatedat30billionUS$,reaching50%oftradeinfinancialservicesestimatedat59.3billionUS$.TheestimatesoftradeinESwouldbehigherifestimateswereavailableforthetotaltradeinES.HighereducationisonlyoneoffivesubsectorsofES.
（2）Highqualityeducationcanpositivelyinfluencelabourfactorconditionsofacountry’seconomicdevelopment.Theavailabilityofhighlyskilledlabourforceisafactorcontributingsubstantiallytonationaleconomicdevelopment.Mostcountriesconsiderinvestmentineducationasbeingofstrategicimportancetoenhancenationalcompetitivenessandtoincreaseopportunitiestoattractforeigndirectinvestment.
（3）TradeinESisinherentlycross-sectoralaffectingtrade,economics,educationandculture.Thisbuilt-inmulti-functionalityoftradeinESrequirescooperationbetweeninstitutionsmandatedtodealwiththedifferentaspectsoftradeinES（WTO）andwaystoestablishcrossnationalrecognitionofeducationalproducts（UNESCO）.
（4）Whilemoststakeholderscanagreethatprivatesectorproviderscanbeequalorevenmoreefficientproducersofeducationalservices,noagreementexistssofarastotheintendedeffectivenessorpurposeofeducation.Iseducationsupposedtobeonlyaboutacquisitionofknowledgeandskills,oralsoaboutensuringstudents’integrationintocivilsociety,ensuringsocialandnationalcohesionandequitableaccesstoknowledgebyallstrataofsocietyindependentofwealthandsocialclass?
Incaseofthelatter,educationcanbeseenasapublicgoodtobeprovidedsolelybystateschoolsoratbestunderstrictsupervisionbystateregulators.
ThepointslistedabovehighlightwhysomanystakeholdergroupsattachsomuchimportancetotradeinES.Afulldiscussionofallthefourpointsisbeyondthescopeofthisarticle.
TheauthorswillinsteadfocusonESwithinthecontextofWTOandthecomplexitiesoftheWTO/GATSnegotiationsontradeineducationalservices,anddevelopavenueshownegotiationsofGATS/EScouldbeundertakenundertheauspicesoftheDohaRound.
2GATSandTradeinEducationalServices
Educationisoneoftwelvesectors（Theothersectorsare:
businessservices;
communicationservices;
constructionandrelatedengineeringservices;
distributionservices;
environmentalservices;
financialservices;
healthandsocialservices;
tourismandtravelrelatedservices;
recreational,culturalandsportingservices;
transportservices;
otherservicesnotincludedelsewhere（WTO:
ServicesSectoralClassificationList））coveredbytheGeneralAgreementonTradeinServices（GATS）,whichtogetherwiththearticlesgoverningtradeingoodsconstitutetherule-makingbodyoftheWTO（formerlytheGATT）.AlthoughtradeinEShasbeenpartoftheWTOsinceitsinceptionin1995,itdidnotdrawasmuchattentionasothersectorslikecommunicationsorfinancialservicesbeforethelaunchoftheServicesRound（2000）anditsinclusionintheDohaRound（endof2001）.Asaresult,littleprogresshadbeenachievedbytheContractingMemberParties（CMPs）intermsofcommitmentstowardsmarketaccess,nationaltreatmentandliberalisationoftheirrespectiveeducationalsectors.Nevertheless,duringthelasttwoyears,EShasreceivedconsiderableattentionespeciallyinOECDcountries.
BeforethestartoftheDohaRound,marketsharesinEShavebeenseriouslyunderestimated.Sincethen,amoreprecisepicturehasemergedofthesector’srelativegrowthintermsofexportsandimports,therebyputtingESonahigherpositionontheagendaoftheCMPsnegotiationitems.
2.1GATSMainPrinciples
Ingeneral,GATSconsistsofthreeobligations,namely:
mostfavourednationtreatment,transparency,anddisputesettlement.TheyapplytoallservicesectorsregardlessofwhetherornotCMPsschedulecommitmentstoliberalisetheirmarketsinanyofthetwelveservicesectors.
WTOmembershavetorespectsectorspecificobligationsattachedtonationalschedulesinregardtomarketaccessandnationaltreatmentrules.Marketaccessfocusesprimarilyonnon-discriminatoryquantitativerestrictionsimpedingaccesstomarkets.EachCMPdetermineslimitationsonmarketaccessforeachcommittedsectorandmodeofsupplyofitsrespectivenationalservicesector.Nationaltreatmentreferstoequaltreatmentforforeignanddomesticproviders（orequalcompetitiveopportunitieswhereidenticaltreatmentisnotpossible）.Onceaforeignsupplierhasbeenallowedtosupplyaserviceinanothercountrythereshouldbenodiscriminationintreatmentbetweenforeignanddomesticproviders.Nationaltreatmentapplieswhereacountryhasmadeapositivespecificcommitment.on-conformingmeasurescanberetainedinscheduledsectors/modesofsupply,asnationaltreatmentdoesnotrequireidenticaltreatmentofdomesticandforeignproviders,butitsspecificationmustbemadeclear.Thesesectorspecificobligationsapplytocommitmentslistedinnationalschedules.ThedegreeandextendofobligationisdeterminedbyeachCMP.
However,servicessuppliedintheexerciseofgovernmentalauthorityarespecificallyexcludedfromthescopeoftheGATS.GATSArticlestipulatesthat“servicesincludesanyserviceinanysectorexceptservicesuppliedintheexerciseofgovernmentalauthority”whichisfurtherrefinedinGATSarticlewhichstatesthat“aservicesuppliedintheexerciseofgovernmentalauthoritymeansanyservicewhichissuppliedneitheronacommercialbasis,norincompetitionwithoneormoreservicesuppliers”.
Sinceitcameintoforce,GATShasabuilt-inagendawhichmeansthatnegotiationscanbere-examinedperiodicallywiththegoalofreachingprogressivelyhigherlevelsofbound（legallybinding）liberalisationwithspecificflexibilitiesbuiltinfordevelopingcountries.However,eachCMPdeterminesthepace,extendandnatureofmarketopeningunderGATSandretainsitsrighttoschedulenocommitmentsinanysector/modeofsupplywhatsoever.
2.2GATSClassificationofES
Ingeneral,GATSdistinguishesbetweenfourmodesofsupplythroughwhichservicescanbetraded,namelyMode1（Cross-bordersupply）,Mode2（Consumptionabroad）,Mode3（Commercialpresence）andMode4（Presenceofnaturalpersons）.AppliedtotradeinESwithinGATS,theexampleslistedinTable1helpillustratethemodalitiesavailableforCMPstoengageinEStrade.
Table1ModesofSupplyinGATS/ES
Modeofsupply
Explanation
ExamplesforES
1.
Cross-Border
Supply（Mode1）
Theprovisionof aservicewheretheservicecrossestheborder（doesnotrequirethephysicalmovementoftheconsumer）.
Distanceeducation;
Virtualeducationinstitutions;
Educationsoftware;
CorporatetrainingthroughICTdelivery.
2.
Consumption
Abroad（Mode2）
Provisionoftheserviceinvolvingthemovementoftheconsumertothecountryofthesupplier.
Studentswhogotoanothercountrytostudy.
3.
CommercialPresence
（Mode3）
Theserviceproviderestablishesorhaspresenceofcommercialfacilitiesinanothercountryinordertorenderservice.
Localuniversityorsatellitecampuses;
Languagetrainingcompanies;
Privatetrainingcompanies,e.g.Microsoft,CISCO,etc.
4.
PresenceofNatural
Persons（Mode4）
Personstravellingtoanothercountryonatemporarybasistoprovideservice.
Professors,teachers,researchersworkingabroad.
Source:
OECD/CERI（2002a）p.6.
InsidethefourmodesofsupplyofESidentifiedabove,educationservicesarecommonlydefinedbyreferencetofivesubsectors,namely:
1.Primary:
pre-schoolandotherprimaryeducationservices;
2.Secondary:
generalsecondary,highersecondary,technicalandvocationalsecondary,andtechnicalandvocationalsecondaryeducationservicesforhandicappedstudents;
3.Higher:
post-secondarytechnicalandvocationalandotherhighereducationservices;
4.Adult:
educationservicesforadultswhoarenotintheregularschoolanduniversitysystemandincludeseducationservicesthroughradioortelevisionbroadcastingorbycorrespondence;
5.Other:
educationservicesatthefirstandsecondlevelsinspecificsubjectmattersnotelsewhereclassifiedandallothereducationservicesthatarenotdefinablebylevel（LARSENETAL.2002,p.10）.
MostMemberswhomadecommitmentsfortradeinESusedtheUnitedNationsProvisionalCentralProductClassificationinordertoavoidthecreationofanewGATSmethodologywhichwouldbeapplicableonlytothissector.However,inconsistencyofclassificationremainsaproblemsincesomeCMPshaveoptedfordifferentmethodologiesmakingcomparisonswithinsectorsacrosscountriesmoredifficult.
2.3EstimatedSizeofEducationalServicesMarkets
Ingeneral,theestimatedoverallmarketvalueinhighereducationforMode2tradeinESofOECDcountrieswasaroundUS$30billionrepresenting3%oftotalservicestradeinOECDcountries.Hence,contrarytopopularbelief,tradeinhigh
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