英语语言学自编教材第一章Word文档下载推荐.docx

英语语言学自编教材第一章Word文档下载推荐.docx

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　　②Hypothesesareformulated;

　　③Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;

　　④Alinguistictheoryisconstructed.

Linguistics:

Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.

Phoneticsisthescientificstudyofspeechsounds,e.g.ofhowtheyaremade（articulatoryphonetics）,transmitted（acousticphonetics）,andreceived（auditoryphonetics）.Phoneticshasbroadapplicationsinanumberofareas,includingspeechrecognition,speechsynthesis,forensiclinguistics,speechtherapyandlanguageinstruction.

Phonologyanalyseshowsoundsareorganizedinalanguage（phonologicalstructure）andattemptstodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernsoundsystemsinlanguagesingeneral.

Morphologyexaminesthestructureorformofwords,howtheyareconstructedofsmallerunits（called“morphemes”）whichhavemeaning（forexample,singeriscomposedofsing+er）.

Syntaxinvestigateshowwords（andgrammaticalelements）arecombinedtoformsentences,whatspeakersknowaboutthegrammaticalstructureoftheirlanguage,howsentencesareinterrelatedandwhatthegeneralgrammaticalandcognitiveprinciplesarewhichexplainthesearrangements,relationships,andknowledge.

Semanticsisthestudyoftheabstractorinherentmeaninginisolation,notincontext.

Pragmaticsisconcernedwithhowthemeaningoflinguisticactsdependsonthecontextinwhichtheyareperformed.Itlooksatlanguagefromthepointofviewoftheusersandthechoicestheymake,andconstraintsonthosechoices,insocialinteraction.（Forexample,pragmaticsstudieswhatcanmakethesentence“Canyouopenthedoor?

”countasaquestioninonesituationandasarequestforactioninanother.）

Sociolinguisticsprobestherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Thisinvolvesvariationinlanguageusewhichcorrelateswithsuchthingsastheage,gender,socialclass,ethnicity,andgeneralsocialattributesofspeakersandhearers.Sociolinguistsalsodealwithattitudestowardslanguage,socialaspectsoflanguagechange,andlinguisticaspectsofsocialissues.

Appliedlinguisticsistheapplicationoflinguisticmethodsandfindingstoanumberofareas.Itisespeciallyassociatedwithlanguageteachingmethodologyandsecond-languageacquisition,butalsoinvolveslanguageandthelaw,languageandclassroomeducation,childdevelopment,languageandreading,speechtherapy,languageandpublicpolicy,translation,advertising,andthelike.

Historicallinguisticsstudieshowandwhylanguageschange.

Discourseanalysisexamineshowlanguageisstructuredbeyondthesentenceandthusinvolvestopicandcomment,narrativestructure,cohesiveness,writtenvs.spokenlanguage,andconversationalanalysis.

Psycholinguisticsinvestigatestheinterrelationshipbetweenlanguageandhumancognition（theroleoflanguageasitaffectsmemory,perception,andlearning）andtheeffectsofpsychologicalconstraintsonlanguage（onitsuse,production,andcomprehension）.Thebestknownareaofpsycholinguisticsisthestudyofchildlanguageacquisition,howchildrenacquiretheirnativelanguage.

Anthropologicallinguisticsdealswiththerelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture;

alsoitinvolvesthestudyoflittle-knownlanguagesintheirculturalsetting.

Computationallinguisticsormathematicallinguisticsisthebranchoflinguisticswhichlooksatlanguagesessentiallyasformalsystems,andappliescomputationaltechniquesandconceptstounderstandingissuessuchasautomaticmachinetranslationandparsing.Thegoalofresearchintheseareasistouncoverthelogicalandmathematicalstructuresthatunderlielinguisticsystems.

Languageissuchanimportantpartofourlivesthatlearningaboutthelanguagesofotherpeople,includinghowthoselanguagesdifferfromours,isinaveryrealsenselearningaboutthosepeople.Aswithanyotheraspectofculture,lackofknowledgecanleadtointolerance.Lookingmorecloselyatlanguages,inparticularatlanguagesthatmightseemexotictous,canmakeusmoretolerant.

Obviouslyaneducatedpersonneedstobeabletosortoutthenonsense,toseehowbiasandideologyarebehindwhatisbeingclaimed,tobeacriticalreaderandlistener,andtomakeinformeddecisions.Alltheseareimpossiblewithoutunderstandingtherolethatlanguageplaysinknowledge,belief,andpersuasion.

Linguisticsprovidesstudentswithvaluabletrainingformanydifferentkindsofopportunities.Linguisticsknowledgeisrequiredintheworkonspeechrecognition,searchengines,andartificialintelligence;

thosewithabackgroundinlinguisticsmayteachattheuniversitylevelorworkineducation,developingcurriculaandmaterials,teachingstudents,trainingteachers,anddesigningtestsandothermethodsofassessment,etc..Theymayworkasatranslatororinterpreter.Theymayworkwithdictionariesasknowledgeofphonology,morphology,historicallinguistics,dialectology,andsociolinguisticsiskeytobecomingalexicographer,tonamejustafew.

Firstly,languageisasystem,whichmeanstheelementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Thisaccountsforwhyitispossibleforustoproduceandunderstandaninfinitenumberofsentencesbasedonalimitednumberoflinguisticforms.

Secondly,languageisarbitraryforthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenformandmeaning,orbetweenthesignandwhatitstandsfor.Forinstance,differentlanguagesusedifferentformstorefertothesamething.Evenwithinthesamelanguage,thesameformcanalsobeusedtomeandifferentthingssuchas/rait/forright,rite,write,etc..

Thirdly,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages,nomatterhowwell-developedtheirwritingsystemsare.

Language:

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

1.2DesignFeaturesofLanguage

“ThelittlelavendermenwholiveinmysocksdrawertoldmethatElviswillcomebackfromMarsonthe10thtodoabenefitconcertforunemployedPekingesedogs.”Haveyoueverheardorreadthissentencebefore?

Isitrule-based?

Doyouhaveproblemsinunderstandingitsmeaning?

Toillustratethepropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication,theAmericanlinguistCharlesHockettproposedthirteendesignfeaturesoflanguage,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.

Arbitrariness,firstproposedbySaussure,meansthereisnointrinsicorlogicalconnectionbetweentheformofthesignalandthethingbeingreferredto.Therelationbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitreferstoisestablishedbyconvention.Forexample,thereisnoreasonthatinEnglishatablewhichhasaflatorslopingtopatwhichwecansitinordertowriteorworkshouldbecalledadesk,notabureau,orShuzhuoorTisch（wordsfordeskrespectivelyinFrench,ChineseandGerman）.Onomatopoeicwordssuchasquackandbarkareoftencitedascounter-examples,basedontheargumentthattheyarepronouncedlikethesoundtheyreferto.However,thelinguisticformswhichdifferentlanguagesusetoimitatethenaturalsoundsarestilldifferent.Englishducksquack,buttheChineselinguisticformforthesamesoundisga,soevenonomatopoeicwordsare,tosomeextent,arbitrary.

Productivitymeansthathumanlanguagesallowspeakerstocreatenovel,never-before-heardutterancesthatotherscanunderstand.Astheexamplementionedaboveshows,thesentence“Thelittlelavendermen…unemployedPekingesedogs”isanovelandnever-before-heardsentence,butanyfluentspeakerofEnglishwouldbeabletounderstanditandrealizethatthespeakerwasnotcompletelysane,inallprobability.

Dualityofpatterningmeansthatthediscretepartsofalanguagecanberecombinedinasystematicwaytocreatenewforms.Asasystem,languageconsistsoftwolevels,oneofwhichreferstothestructureofsoundsthatcanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargernumberofunitsofmeaningsuchasmorphemesandwords.Theotherlevelisahigherlevel,whichcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.ThisideaissimilartoProductivity.However,Productivityreferstotheabilitytogeneratenovelmeanings,whileDualityofpatterningreferstotheabilitytorecombinesmallunitsindifferentorders.

Displacementmeansthatthespeakercantalkaboutthingswhicharenotpresent,eitherspatiallyortemporally.Forexample,humanlanguageallowsspeakerstotalkaboutthepastandthefuture,aswellasthepresent.Speakerscanalsotalkaboutthingsthatarephysicallydistant（suchasothercountries,themoon,etc.）.Theycanevenrefertothingsandeventsthatdonotactuallyexist（theyarenotpresentinreality）suchastheEasterBunny,theEarthhavinganemperor,orthedestructionofTarainGonewiththeWind.

Arbitra