自学考试英美国家概况6995第五章文档格式.docx

自学考试英美国家概况6995第五章文档格式.docx

《自学考试英美国家概况6995第五章文档格式.docx》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《自学考试英美国家概况6995第五章文档格式.docx（43页珍藏版）》请在冰点文库上搜索。

whichstillbearsthe'

nick-

nametoday.

Bythebeginningofthe19thcenturytheWhigshadnoparticular

programmeandwerenotevenaunitedpartyinthemodemsense.

Theydidnotyethaveanorganizedpartystructure,,withoutparty

fundsforexample.Whigsstoodfor

（1）areductioninCrownpa-

tronage（thepowertoappointpeopletoimportantpositionsandof-

fices）

9

（2）sympathytowardsNonconformists（Methodistsand

otherProtestantsectswhohadbrokenawayfromtheChurchof

67

England）

and（3）

carefortheinterestsofmerchants

and

bankers.

MostWhigswereinfavouralsoofsomekindofParlia-

mentaryreform,butcouldnotagreehowfarthisreformshouldgo.

（e.g.Shouldthemerchantsnowbeallowedtovote,orshouldall

mengetthevote?

）

Toriesweretraditionalists-whowantedtopreservethepowersof

themonarchyandtheChurchofEngland.TheydislikedtheNon-

conformistsandconsideredthemathreattoChurchofEngland'

sin-

fluenceonthepeople;

theywantedstrictmaintenanceoflawand

orderandwereafraidofmobriot,

•andtheydidnotalwaysagreeto

allreforms.Theymightagreeto.somehumanitarianreforms,,

but

werecertainlyagainstParliamentaryreforms.

Therewasanotherbrandofopinion,butwithmuchsmallersup-

portintheParliament.TheyweretheRadicalswhowantedfunda-

mentalreformstogettotherootofproblems.Onlyahandfulof

ParliamentarymemberswereRadicals,butinthelate18thandear-

ly19thcenturiesRadicalswereactiveinParliamentspreadingradical

ideas.TheironecommonaimwasthoroughreformoftheParlia-

mentarysystem.TheyweregreatlyinfluencedbyJeremy

if.

til

Bentham'

sidealsknownasUtilitarianism-Hesuggestedthat

&

I

government'

sfunctionshouldbetoachievethegreatesthappiness

119

ofthegreatestnumber-Thisshouldbedoneintwowaysaccord-

ingtohim:

（1）govermentandadministrationshouldbemadea8

efficientaspossible.Anythingwhichwasnotefficientanduseful

（e.g.educationalsystem,prisonsystem,Parliament）shouldbe

modemized;

and

（2）governmentshouldinterfereaslittleaspossi-

blewithlivesofthepeopleasindividuals.Theyadvocatedlai&

w2

faire,aradicalideaoffreetrade,becausetheybelievedthatthe

importandexportdutiesinterferedwiththenaturalflowoftrade.

68

Agricultural

Changes

in

the

Late

18th

Century

tury.Villageandagriculturewerethebackboneofthenation.

FarmingwasanimportantoccupationinEnglandinthe18thcen-

Changesinfarmingmethodsthereforewouldaffectlivesofmillions.

"

Agriculturalchangesinthelate18thandearly19thcenturieswere

indeedsogreatthattheymeritthetermrevolution'

'

.Traditional

farminginvolvedtheopenfieldvillage,asystemthatdatedbackto

the5thcentury.Villagesweresurroundedby3greathedgeless

fieldswhichcentredallthearableland.Thesefieldsweredivided

intostripssharedoutamongthevillagers.Eachfamily'

slandwas

scatteredabout,sogoodlandwasfairlydistributed.

Muchwas

doneonacommunitybasis.Onegreatfieldleft'

fallow

$9

eachyear

（i

•e.

unused/unsownafterploughing）sothatitssoilrecoveredits

Thismeantonly2/3ofthe

richnessaftertwoyears'

cultivation.

landwascultivatedatanytime.Inadditiontothefieldstherewere

commonsandwastelandsusedbyallvillagerstograzelivestock.

Thissystemwasanidealbasisforthesimplecommunitylifeofthe

countrysideandsubsistencefarmingbeforethemodernindustrial

age.Therewereofcoursedrawbacks:

（1）itwastedlandbecause

offallowfieldsandlandforpaths;

（2）itwaswastefuloflabour

andtime;

（3）livestockfarmingwasdifficultanddiseasesspread

quicklyoncommons.Winterfeedwasrarelyenough,soanimals

wereusuallykilledinaufuninandtheirmeatwassalted,

•and（4）

theopenfieldsystemwasabarrier-toexperiments.

Inthemid-18thcenturythepopulationinEnglandincreased

69

rapidly,andmostofthisincreasewasinthetowns,dependingon

thecountryside,forfood.Greaterproductivitymeanthandsome

profits,solandownerswantedtoreplacethesynallfarmscultivated

46

ontheopen-field"

systbmbylarger,economicallymoreefficient

farmswithhedge-dividedfields.Duringthelate18thandearly

19thcenturiestheopen-field'

systemendedwhentheEnclosure

Actsenabledwealthierlandownerstoseizeanylandtowhichtenants

couldprovenolegaltitleandtodivideitintoenclosedfields.Asys-

temofcroprotationwasintroduced.Thismeantlandcouldbefully

usedwhilethecuffivationoffoddercropsenabledlivestocktobe

keptthroughthewintermonths.Artificialfertilizerandnewagn-

culturalmachinery,suchastheseeddrillinventedbyJethroTull

（1674-1741）,also'

madearablefarmingmoreefficientandmore

profitable.The18thcenturyalsosawselectivebreedingofcattle,

sheepandhorsesbyRobertBakewell（1725-95）.Animalsby1800

were2to3timesheavierthaneverbefore.Theideaofencouraging

tenantstointroducechangeswasassociatedwithThomasCoke

（1754-1842）ofNorfolkinSouthernEnglandandevenGeorgeIR

wassoenthusiasticaboutchangesatWindsorthathegotthenick-

Enclosurebecamemorefrequentafter1740andclimaxedduring

theturnofthecenturywhenwaragainstFrancemeanthighfood

priceswarwasanincentivetolandlordstoencloseland.

Agriculturalenclosurehadgoodaswellasbadresults:

（1）

Farmsbecame-biggerandbiggerunitsasthegreatboughtupthe

（2）morevegetables,moremilkandmoredairyproduce

small;

wereconsumed,anddietbecamemorevaried;

（3）enclosurewasa

disasterforthetenantsevictedfromtheirlandsbytheenclosures.

Thesepeasantfarmerswereforcedtolookforworkintowns,

70

Riotseruptedin

whichrapidlybecamehopelesslyovercrowded.

manyareasbuttheycouldnotpreventthemarchofprogress.In

IrelandandtheScottishHighlands-landenclosureledtomassemi-

gration,particularlytotheNewWorld;

and（4）anewclasshos-

tilitywasintroducedintoruralrelationships.-Concentrationofland

infewerhandsincreasedthepriceoflandanddashedthelabourers'

aninmlsaddedinsulttoinjury,andmeantmanyhadtoleavethe

hopesofeverowninghisownland.Lossofthecommonlandforhis

landtosurvive.Othersbecamewagelabourers,earningrates

whichwereverylowinspiteofagriculture'

snewprosperity.

M-TheIndustrialRevolution（1780-1&

*30）

TheIndustrialRevolutionreferstothemechanizationofindustry

andtheconsequentchangesinsocialandeconomicorganizationin

Britaininthelate18thandearly19thcenturies.Britainwasthe

firstcountryto.industrializebecauseofthefollowingfactors:

（1）Britainwas,wellplacedgeographicallytoparticipateinEu-

ropeanandworldtrade;

（2）Britainhadapeacefulsociety,

which,

afterthe17thcen-

tury,wasincreasinglyinterestedinoverseastradeandcolonies.In-

ternationaltradebroughtweAthtomerchantsandcitybankers.

Theyandthosewhohad'

-donewelloutofnewfarming.methodspro-

videdcapitalinlargequantitiesforindustrialization.

（3）ThelimitedmonarchywhichresultedfromtheGlorious

Revolutionof1688ensuredthatthepowerfuleconomicinterestsin

thecommunitycouldexerttheirinfluenceoverGovernmentpolicy.

（4）Itwasacountryinwhichthemaintownswerenevertoo

farfromseaports,

orfromrivers,

whichcoulddistributetheir

71

products.

（5）Britainhadmanyrivers,

whichwereusefulfortransport

butalsoforwaterandsteampower.Britainalsohadusefulmineral

resources.

（6）Britishengineershadsoundtrainingascraftsmen.

（7）Theinventorswererespected.

Theysolvedpracticalprob-

lems.

（8）Probablylaissezfaireand

94

Protestantworkethic

11P

helped.

（9）England,Scotland,andWalesformedacustomsunionaf~

ter1707andthisincludedIrelandafter1807.Sothenationalmar-

ketwasnothinderedbyinternalcustomsbarriers.

（10）Theenclosuresandotherimprovementsinagriculture

madetheircontributionsbyprovidingfoodfortherisingpopulation,

labourforthefactories,andsomeoftherawmaterialsneededby

industry.

methodswasatitsheight,similarthingstookplaceinmanufac-

Whilethemovementtoenclosethelandandusenewagricultural

ture.Beforethe18thcenturymostindustriesweredoneinthe

homeinvillagesandsmalltowns,usingverysimplehandoperated

ult-

machines.Nownewtechniquesandwaterpoweredmachines

edinorganizationofindustriesonalargescale.Atthistimepopula-

tionbecameincreasinglyconcentratedintowns,especiallyinMid-

lands,NorthofEngland,SouthernWalesandCentralScotland-

Changes-occurredearliestandquickestintextiles,especiidlycotton

andsilkandinothertradeslikehardware,potteryandchemicals.

Productionofwoolenclothwastraditionalandsomeof