Conversational-ImplicaturePPT推荐.ppt

Conversational-ImplicaturePPT推荐.ppt

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Itisraining.Semanticandliteralmeaning:

hisanswerunrelatedtothequestion.Intendedmeaning:

thefootballmatchwillbecanceledasthegroundiswetandslipperyaftertherain.,Anotherexample:

Canyoutellmethetime?

Well,themilkmanhascome.Bsemanticandliteralmeaning:

Well,themilkmancameatsometimepriortothetimeofspeaking.Bsimplicature:

Sorry,Idontknowtheexacttimeofthepresentmoment,butIcanprovidesomeinformationfromwhichyoumaybeabletodeducetheappropriatetime,namelythemilkmanhascome.,Conclusion:

Thereisagapbetweenwhatisliterallysaidandwhatisimplied.Thisgapissosubstantial（本质的）thatwecannotexpectasemantictheorytoexplainhowwecommunicateusinglanguage.Thenotionofimplicature,however,bridgesthegapbyexplaininghowmeaningsareeffectivelyconveyed.,4.3.2Thenotionofimplcaturesimplifiesboththestructureandthecontentofsemanticdescription.Inthissense,implicaturedoesnotexplainhowawordorexpressionhasseveralliteralmeaningsbutexplainshowawordorexpressioncouldimplydifferentmeaningsbydifferentlanguageusers.e.g.Thelonerangerjumpedonhishorseandrodeintothesunset.ThecapitalofFranceisParisandthecapitalofEnglandisLondon.,Sofromsemanticpointofview,itmayholdthatandhastwomeaningsinthetwosentences.Butfrompragmaticpointofview,itholdsthatthewordandisaconjunction.Itislanguageuserswhouseittoconveyvariousmeaningsunderspecificcontext.Conclusion:

Sointhissense,pragmaticstudyofthenotionofimplicaturesimplifiesboththestructureandthecontentofsemanticdescription.Itholdsthatawordmeaningisgenerallysimple,straightforwardandsteady.Onlycontextmakesawordtakeondifferentshadesofmeanings.e.g.Theclothiswhite.Theclothiswhite,redandgreen.,4.3.3Thenotionofimplicaturehasaverygenerativeexplanatorypower.Withthehelpofthecontext,implicaturemayexplainhowalargenumberofapparentlyunrelatedsentencesmayconveythesamemeaning.Inthiswayimplicaturehelpstomakeourlanguageusecolorful.Takethefollowingsentencesasexamples1）Iwantyoutoclosethedoor.2）Pleaseclosethedoor.3）Canyouclosethedoor?

4）Howaboutabitlessbreeze?

5）Now,Johnny,whatdobigpeopledowhentheycomein?

6）Okay,Johnny,whatamIgoingtosaynext?

Conclusion:

Sointhiscase,implicaturehelpstoexplainhowsomeseeminglyunrelatedsentencescometomeanthesame.Withthehelpofcontext,theuseofimplicaturemakesourlanguageusemorecolorful.Wemayexpressthesamemeaningindifferentwaystosuitappropriatecontexts.（何自然PP67-69）,4.4ConventionalImplicatureThereisthekindofmeaningthatisalwaysassociatedwithanexpressionsothatoneveryoccasionwhentheexpressionoccurs,themeaningoccurs.Thismeaningwhichisnaturallyassociatedwithanexpressionisknownasconventionalimplicature,orentilment（规约含义）,ornaturalmeaning.,Becauselanguageisbasicallyculture-specific,conventionalimplicatureofthesameexpressionmayvaryunderdifferentculturalbackground.Forexample,whitegivestheimplicatureofpurityandchastity（贞操、贞洁）inwesternculturesandisassociatedwithabride;

butitindicatesill-luckandmisfortuneinChinaandisassociatedwithmourning.Oftentheconventionalimplicaturesareformedbytheconventionaluseoflanguagewithinspecificculturalbackground.Theymayormaynotbesharedbyallcultures.,Grice于1957年在哲学评论（PhilosophicalReview）上发表了意义（Meaning）一文。

在文中，Grice把“意义”分为两类：

“自然意义”（naturalmeaning）和“非自然意义”（non-naturalmeaning），并正式提出了“非自然意义理论”。

关于“自然意义”，他举了这样一个例子：

Thosespotsmeantmeasles（那些斑点意味着麻疹）。

他指出，如果不存在施事者（因而也不涉及施事者的意图），话语的意义只是“自然地”被理解，那么，这类话语就只表达“自然意义”。

关于“非自然意义”，Grice认为它具有如下特点：

S发出U，具有非自然意义，当且仅当：

（i）S发出U，试图在H那儿引起某种效果Z；

（ii）通过H认可S的意图而使S的愿望不折不扣地实现。

S说话人H听话人U由语言符号构成的话语Z粗略地代表在听话人那儿产生的信仰或意志力，或作出的反应。

Grice的“非自然意义理论”实际上是一种交际理论（atheoryofcommunication）。

4.5ConversationalImplicatureUnlikeconventionalimplicatures,conversationalimplicaturesareproducedbyrelatingtotheconversationalcontext.Toknowwhatpeoplemean,wehavetointerpretwhattheysay.Butinterpretationisatrickyaffair,andmis-understandingsarealwayspossible.AsLeechremarks,interpretinganutteranceisultimatelyamatterofguess-work.e.g.A:

WhenisTomsbirthday?

ItssometimeinOctober.Bsimplicature:

theonlythingherememberedaboutTomsbirthdaywasthemonthinwhichitoccurs,andthathehonestlydidntknowwhetheritwasatthebeginning,themiddleortheendofthatmonth.,Howdoesaconversationalimplicaturecomeabout?

Inanalyzinganutterance,dependingonstrictsemanticorlogicalcriteriawillnothelp.TheguessworkthatLeechtalksaboutwillhavetobeofasomewhatqualifiednature.Thequalifiedguessingmustdependonthecontext,thatis,thecircumstan-cesofthisparticularquestion,thepersoninvolvedinthesituation,thesepersonsbackground,etc.Themoreweknowaboutthiscontext,themorewell-groundedourguessworkisgoingtobe.,e.g.A:

Icouldeatthewholeofthatcake.B:

Oh,thanks.Asliteralmeaning:

astatementofafact.Thecontext:

anexchangebetweenaguestandahost.Asimplicature:

Icomplimentyouonthecake,itissodeliciousthatIwanttoeatthewholeofit.e.g.A:

Whereismyboxofchocolates?

Iwasfeelinghungry.Ihavegotatraintocatch.Whereisyourdietsheet?

Thechildrenwereinyourroomthismorning.,Bssemanticmeanings:

nonsenseBsintendedmeanings:

Hehaseatenthechocolatesashewashungry.Hetookthechocolatesashegotatraintocatch.HehidthechocolatesasheknewthatAwasondiet.（toloseweight,Ashouldnoteatthem.）Hesuggestedthatthechocolatesmightbeeatenbythechildren.,Conclusion:

Theintendedmeaningsofdifferentspeakersarenotdrawnfromsemanticorlogicalcontentoflanguage,butaredrawnfromconversatinalimplicaturewhichtriestoexplainlanguageusefromfunctional,communicativeandcontextualaspectsratherthanfromlinguisticaspectswhichincludephonology,syntaxandsemantics.,Question:

Whydontpeoplejustsaywhattheymeansoastoavoidallguessworkandmisunderstanding?

_thewaylanguageusersgoabouttheircommunicativebusinessesCommunicationisnotamatteroflogicortruth,butofco-operative;

notofwhatpeoplesay,butofwhattheycansayundercertaincircumstances.AccordingtoGrice,thereasonwhypeopledontsaywhattheymeanisthattheytrytobeco-operativebyobservingcertainrulesincommunicationsoastomakecommunicationsmoothandsuccessful.,在言语交际中，一句话的全部意义，即有意图的信息交流内容应作下列图式分解（Levinson,1983:

131）：

非自然意义（=有意图的信息交流内容）字面意义含义规约含义非规约含义非会话含义会话含义一般性会话含义特殊性会话含义,由这个图式可以清楚地看到，Grice认定“非自然意义”是由字面意义和含义两部分共同组成的。

因此，要全面地、深入地研究交际中话语的意义，就必须既研究话语的字面意义又研究话语的含义，而含义中又以会话含义最为重要。

语用学是在言语交际的总框架中研究话语意义的恰当表达和准确理解的。

正因为如此，“合作原则”和“会话含义”就成为重要的研究课题。

4.6TheCo-operativePrinciple（合作原则）AnAmericanphilosophernamedH.PaulGriceintroducestheCo-operativePrinciple（CP）inhisbookLogicandConversation逻辑与会话in1975.InGricesopinion,inordertoconductsuccessfulandhappyinteraction,peopleareactuallyobservingcertainco-operativeprinciples.要使交谈顺利进行，就要求交谈参与者共同遵守一般原则，即在参与交谈时，要使你说的话符合你所参与交谈的公认目的和方向。

Withinthisprinciple,Gricesuggestsfoursub-principlesormaximsas:

（参见何自然P71）TheMaximofQuality（质的准则）:

trytomakeyourcontributiontrue,specially:

a）donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalseb）donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidenceTheMaximofQuantity（量的准则）:

a）makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequiredforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchangeb）donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired,TheMaximofRelevance（关系准则）:

makeyourcontributionrelevant.TheMaximofManner（方式准则）:

beperspicuous（明白的，明了的）,andspecially:

a）avoidobscurity（避免晦涩）b）avoidambiguity（避免歧义）c）bebrief（简练避免罗嗦）d）beorderly（井井有条）,4.7ObservingGricesCo-operativePrincipleThemaximofquality:

tospeaksincerelye.g.1）JohnhastwoPh.D.s.+IbelievehehasandhaveadequateevidencetoshowthathehastwoPh.D.s.2）Doesyourfarmcontain400acres?

+Idontknowitdoes,andIwanttoknowifitdoes.3）Iwilldoit.+IsincerelyintendtodoaswhatIsay.（参见何自然P72）,Themaximofqualitysuggeststhat,inco