国际多式联运与集装箱运输.docx

国际多式联运与集装箱运输.docx

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国际多式联运与集装箱运输

4.国际多式联运与集装箱运输

4.1TheNatureofIntermodalism

Competitionbetweenthemodeshastendedtoproduceatransportsystemthatissegmentedandun-integrated.Eachmodehassoughttoexploititsownadvantagesintermsofcost,service,reliabilityandsafety.Carrierstrytoretainbusinessbymaximizingtheline-haulundertheircontrol.Allthemodessawtheothermodesascompetitors,andwereviewedwithsuspicionandmistrust.Thelackofintegrationbetweenthemodeswasalsoaccentuatedbypublicpolicythathasfrequentlybarredcompaniesfromowningfirmsinothermodes（asintheUnitedStatesbeforederegulation）,orhasplacedamodeunderdirectstatemonopolycontrol（asinEurope）.Modalismwasalsofavoredbecauseofthedifficultiesoftransferringgoodsfromonemodetoanother,therebyincurringadditionalterminalcostsanddelays.

Intermodalismoriginatedinmaritimetransportation,withthedevelopmentofthecontainerinthelate1960'sandhassincespreadtointegrateothermodes.Itisnotsurprisingthatthemaritimesectorshouldhavebeenthefirstmodetopursuecontainerization.Itwasthemodemostconstrainedbythetimetakentoloadandunloadthevessels.Aconventionalbreakbulkcargoshipcouldspendasmuchtimeinaportasitdidatsea.Containerizationpermitsthemechanizedhandlingofcargoesofdiversetypesanddimensionsthatareplacedintoboxesofstandardsizes.Inthiswaygoodsthatmighthavetakendaystobeloadedorunloadedfromashipcannowbehandledinamatterofminutes.

FirstContainership,Ideal-X,1956

OnApril26th1956,theIdeal-XleftthePortofNewark,NewJerseytothePortHouston,Texas,whichitcalled5dayslater.Itcarried5835-feet（8feetwideby8feethigh）containers,alongwitharegularloadof15,000tonsofbulkpetroleum.The35feetunitrepresentedatthattimethestandardtrucksizeintheUnitedStates.ThisfirstcontainershipwasconvertedundertheinitiativeofMalcomMcLean（1914-2001）,atruckingmagnatewhosawthetremendouspotentialofcontainerization,particularlyintermsofloadingandunloadingcosts.McLeancalculatedthatin1956loadingamedium-sizedshiptheconventionalwaywascosting$5.83aton.Comparatively,loadingtheIdeal-Xwascostinglessthan$0.16aton.Theeconomicadvantagesofsuchamodeoftransportationthusbecamecleartotheshippingindustry.In1960,McLeanfoundedSeaLand,amajorcontainershippingline,whichwaspurchasedin1999byMaersk,theworld'slargestcontainershippingcompany.TheIdealXcarriedcontainersuntil1965,whenitwasscrapped.

Sincethe1960smajoreffortshavebeenmadetointegrateseparatetransportsystemsthroughintermodalism,whichtookplaceisseveralstages.Whatinitiallybeganasimprovingtheproductivityofshippingevolvedintoanintegratedsupplychainmanagementsystemacrossmodes.Thisinvolvestheuseofatleasttwodifferentmodesinatripfromorigintodestinationthroughanintermodaltransportchain.Intermodalityenhancestheeconomicperformanceofatransportchainbyusingmodesinthemostproductivemanner.Thus,theline-hauleconomiesofrailmaybeexploitedforlongdistances,withtheefficienciesoftrucksprovidingflexiblelocalpickupanddelivery.Thekeyisthattheentiretripisseenasawhole,ratherthanasaseriesoflegs,eachmarkedbyanindividualoperationwithseparatesetsofdocumentationandrates.

4.1.1IntegratedTransportSystems:

FromFragmentationtoCoordination

Factor

Cause

Consequence

Technology

Containerization&IT

Modalandintermodalinnovations;Trackingshipmentsandmanagingfleets

Capitalinvestments

Returnsoninvestments

Highscostsandlongamortization;Improveutilizationtolessencapitalcosts

AlliancesandM&A

Deregulation

Easiercontractualagreements;jointownership

Commoditychains

Globalization

Coordinationoftransportationandproduction（integrateddemand）

Networks

Consolidationandinterconnection

Multiplyingeffect

Thenotionofintegratedtransportsystemsreceivedalotofattention,particularlywithimprovementsinthecapacity,efficiencyandreliabilityoffreighttransportsystems.Theconventionalfragmentedandsub-optimalfreighttransportsystemshavesubstantiallybeenimproved.Aprocessofcoordinationoffreighttransportistakingplace.Severalfactorscanbepondered:

（1）Technology

Technologyhasbeenaprimedrivingforce.Containerizationiswithoutanydoubtthemostsignificanttechnologicalfactorbehindamoreefficientcoordinationoftransportmodes.Innovationsincludemodes,suchaspost-panamaxcontainershipsordouble-stackingtrains,butalsointermodalequipmenttohandlesignificanttransshipmentdemands.Hard（technical）assetsrequiresoft（management）assets.Informationtechnologieshavegonealongwaytohelpimprovingthelevelofcontroloversupplychains,whichincludesimportantaspectssuchastrackingshipmentsandmanagingfleets.Theissueofe-commercehasparticularlyreceivedattention.

（2）Capitalintensivesector

Freighttransportationisacapitalintensivesectorwithhighentrycostsforthemaritimeandrailsegments.Theamortizationofmodesandinfrastructures,particularlyterminals,hastobespreadoverasignificanttimeperiod,sometimesovermorethanadecade.Thisenvironmentispronetorisksandmanypotentialinvestorsareunwillingtocommitcapitalforinfrastructureprojects.Thisareasonwhythegovernmenthasoftenbeencalledtostepin.Still,freighttransportcompaniesaredominantlyprivateentitiesandmustrelyoncapitalmarketstofinancetheirventures.Ifthroughahigherlevelofcoordinationwithotherelementsofthesupplychainagreaterquantityandstabilityinutilizationcanbesecured,capitalcostscanbereducedandfinancialreturnsimproved.Thus,intermodalprojectshavepotentiallyalowercapitalrisk.

（3）Newformsofrelationships

Coordinationalsoimpliesnewformsofrelationshipsbetweenfreightforwarders.Thiswasfavoredbythederegulationofmanytransportmodesintheearly1980s.TheAviationDeregulationAct（1979）,theStaggersAct（1980）,theMotorCarrierAct（1980）andtheOceanShippingAct（1984）aresignificantlandmarksinthisdirection.Itbecameeasierfordifferenttransportoperatorstoestablishcontractualagreements.Mergers/acquisitionswithinthesamemodestartedtotakeplace,mainlyinmaritimeandrailtransportation,butalsomodalandintermodalalliances.

（4）Globalcommoditychains

Globalizationhaspermittedtheemergenceofastructureofproduction,oftenknownasglobalcommoditychainsorglobalproductionnetworks.Thisstructurerequiresahighlevelofcoordination.Itisthusexpectedthatthisproductionstructureimposesasimilarstructureofdistributionwherecoordinationbetweenmodesanddifferenttransportsystemsisrequired.Undersuchcircumstances,transportdemandshouldincreasinglybeconsideredasintegrated.

（5）Networks

Finally,integratedtransportsystemsrelyontherespectivestrengthsofeachtransportnetworks.Sincenetworksareexpensivetobuildandoperate,linkingthempromotesefficiencyandahigherlevelofcontrol.Thiscanbeconsideredasamultiplyingeffectwheretheefficiencyofthewholeintermodalnetworkishigherthanthesumofitsparts.

4.1.2EvolutionofIntermodalIntegration

Itcanbearguedthatthreemajorparadigmshiftshavetakenplacewithincontainerizedfreightdistributionsystems:

（1）Containerizationofmaritimetransportsystems.

Atfirst,theintroductionofthecontaineranditspenetrationwithinmaritimesystemstookplace.Thisisparticularlythecasefromthemid1965swhenstandardizationresultedincommoncontainersizeandlatchingsystems.Theefficiencyofporttransshipmentsimprovedandinlandservices,dominantlyrelyingontrucking,begantobeestablished.Still,maritimeservicestendedtobeonapoint-to-pointbasisandbetweenmajorports.

（2）Containerizationofinlandtransportsystems.

Containerizationmovedinland,mainlyinanattempttoimprovethecontinuityalreadyestablishedwithinmaritimetransportation,particularlywiththesettingofpendulumservices.Theintroductionofdoublestackingrailservicesinthemid1980srequiredthesettingandredesignofinlandcontainerrailterminalsinNorthAmerica.TheadoptionofthecontainerinEuropegainedmomentumwhenanintermodalsystemstartedtoemergeinthelate1970s.Forexample,theshiftfromconventionalandhighlyirregularbargeservicestoscheduledandreliablecontainerservicesinthesecondhalfofthe1970sgaveimpetustoafastcontainerizationprocessalongtheRhinebasinuptothemainportsofRotterdamandAntwerp.

（3）Intermodalandtransmodaloperations.

Sincecontainerizationhasexpandedtocovermaritimeandinlandtransportsystems,thenextphasedominantlyaimsatimprovingitsoverallefficiency.Thisefficiencyismainlybasedinthereductionofthenumberoftimesacontainerishandledaswellasthevelocityatwhichintermodalandtransmodaloperationsareperformed.Also,thegrowthincontainerizedshipmentsplacedadditionalpressuresonintermodaltransportsystems,whichforthemaritimesegmentresultedinthesettingofoffshorehubs.Theymainlyactasintermediarylocationsbetweenmajorsystemsofmaritimecirculation/Establishmentofcommoditychains.Inlandtransportsystemsaccommodatedagrowingamountoftraffic,whichinmanycasesresultedinthesettingoflargeinlandfreightdistributioncenters（inlandports）.

4.1.3IntermodalTransportChain

Fourmajorfunctionsdefineanintermodaltransportchain:

（1）Composition.

Theprocessofassemblingandconsolidatingfreightataterminalthatoffersan