2.-conversational-implicature会话含义.pptx

2.-conversational-implicature会话含义.pptx

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Chapter2,ConversationalImplicature会话含义,2.1Conversationalimplicature2.2CooperativePrinciple（Grice）Neo-Griceantheories2.3Relevancetheory（SperberandWilson）2.4TheQ-andR-principles（Horn）2.5TheQ-,I-andM-principles（Levinson）,2.1Conversationalimplicature,Whatisthemeaningofthefollowingsentence:

Isthisyourpen?

theownershipofapen（aquestion）MayIuseyourpen?

（arequest）Youveleftbehindyourpen.（areminder）Pickitup.（anorder）,Whendoesthefollowingsentencemakessense?

Childrenarechildren.Twokindofmeanings:

（Stevenson,1963）1.DescriptiveorConventionalmeaning2.PsychologicalorPragmaticmeaning,Gricesanalysisofmeaningandintention:

Thereisacloserelationshipbetweenthenotionofmeaningandthenotionofintention.Inspeakingalanguage,thespeakerattemptstocommunicatethingstohishearerbygettingthehearertorecognizethespeakersintentiontocommunicatejustthosethings.Thereisadistinctionbetweenwhatissaidandwhatisimplicated,Thetheoryofconversationalimplicatureisthesecondmajortheoryinpragmatics.HerbertPaulGricebegantoformulatehisideasofthistheoryinthefifties.Hedeliveredlectures-theWilliamJamesLecturesatHarvardin1967.Partofthelectures“LogicandConversation”waspublishedin1975.,2.2.CooperativePrinciple（Grice）,CooperativePrinciple（CP）Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.使你说的话符合你所参与的交谈的公认的目的或方向-Grice（1975）,Fourmaxims,QuantityMaxim数量准则1）Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired（forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange）.使自己所说的话达到交谈的现实目的所要求的详尽程度2）Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.自己所说的话不能比所要求的更详尽,QuantityMaximleadstoHumor,Gary:

Howwasyourfightwithyourwife?

Dustin:

Shecamecrawlingtomeonherhandsandknees.Gary:

Isthatso?

Whatdidshesaytoyou?

Dustin:

Shesaid,“Comeoutfromunderthebedandfightlikeaman!

”,QualityMaxim质量准则Trytomakeourcontributiononethatistrue.所说的话是真的1）Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.不说自己认为是不真实的话2）Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.不说自己缺乏足够证据的话,QualityMaximleadstoHumor,Amanwaitedoverthreehourstogreethisnephewattheairport.Theuncle:

WhenwillflightC1308arrive?

Imnervousbecauseitsmynephewsfirstflight.Iwanttomakesurehessafe.Airlineworker:

Howoldistheboy?

Theuncle:

Hewassixyearsoldwhenheleft!

RelationMaxim关联准则Berelevant.说话要贴切MannerMaxim方式准则Beperspicuous:

1）Avoidobscurityofexpression避免晦涩词语2）Avoidambiguity避免歧异3）Bebrief说话要简要（避免赘述）4）Beorderly说话要有条理,RelationMaximleadstoHumor,Customer:

Whatisthisflydoinginmysoup?

Waiter:

Itlookslikehesdoingthebackstroke.儿子：

爸爸，今天晚上我能用你的汽车吗？

父亲：

孩子，你长着两条腿是干什么用的？

儿子：

一条踩油门，另一条踩刹车。

MannerMaximleadstoHumor,（Inthemiddleofabusystreet）Woman:

Officer,canyoutellmehowtogettothehospital?

Policeman:

Juststandwhereyouare.,ViolationofCP,BUThowcanGriceexplainwhywefrequentlyviolatetheCooperativePrinciple?

Gricewouldclaimthat:

EvenifpeopledontseemtobefollowingthemaximsoftheCooperativePrinciple,theyarefollowing（严格遵守）theCPatsomedeeperlevel!

4possiblesituationswhereCPcanbeviolatedquietlyandunostentatiouslyviolateCP（mostlikelytomislead）optout（e.g.Icantsaymore.Mylipsaresealed.）faceadilemma（e.g.fulfillthequalitymaximbutviolatethequantitymaxim:

-WheredoesClive?

-SomewhereinthesouthofFrance.）flout（deliberatelyviolate）amaximbutdonotmislead,Thefourthcasecanmostlikelytogenerateconversationalimplictures.ThespeakerobservesCPonthewhole,buthedeliberatelyfailstofulfillcertainmaximsinordertogenerateconversationalimplicature.Whatissaiddiffersfromwhatisimplicated.Amaximisbeingexploited.Othermeaningshavebeenconceivedonotherdeeperlevels.,DefaultinterpretationSolongasthehearerassumesthatthespeakeriscooperative,hewillgoontryingtofindthemostappropriatemeaningtotheseeminglyuntrue,irrelevantutterancesbythespeaker.-G.Leech（1983）.,Examples,A:

WheresBill?

B:

TheresayellowVWoutsideSueshouse.Thisseemstoviolatethequalitymaximsandrelationmaxim,but.WeinterpretBsutteranceasstillbeingcooperative.,WeassumeBisbeingcooperative.Weasktheconnectionbetween1）Billslocation;and2）thelocationofayellowVW.Wearriveatthesuggestionthat,ifBillhasayellowVW,hemaybeinSueshouse.InferencescontrarytothesurfacearewhatGricecalls“conversationalimplicatures”!

Iftheconversationsparticipantsarefollowingmostofthemaxims,thespeakermaystillrequestthatthehearermakebasicinferences.Theonlypurposeofanyviolationmaybeinthenameofefficiency.Inthefollowingexample,maximsseemtobeviolated（atthesurfacelevel）.,A:

（topasserby）:

Ivejustrunoutofpetrol.B:

Oh;theresagaragejustaroundthecorner.（violationofrelationmaxim）BsutterancemaybetakentoimplicatethatAmayobtainpetrolthere.Hewouldcertainlybebeinglessthanfullyco-operativeifheknewthegaragewasclosedorwassoldoutofpetrol.,Anotherwayinferencesmaybegeneratedbythemaximsiswherethespeakerdeliberatelyandostentatiouslybreachesorfloutsthemaxims.,Aiswritingatestimonialaboutastudentswhoisacandidateforaphilosophyjob,andhisletterreads:

DearSir,Mr.XscommandofEnglishisexcellentandhisattendanceattutorialshasbeenregular.ButnotDearSir,Mr.XscommandofEnglishisexcellentandhisattendanceattutorialshasbeenregular.However,hisabilityatandenthusiasmforphilosophyarequiteadequateforthejob.（violationofQuantityMaxim）,Moreexamples,Childrenarechildren.（tautology）（QuantityMaxim）Heisafinefriend.（irony）（QualityMaxim）Hehasaheartofstone.（metaphor）（QualityMaxim）Ihaventseenyouforages.（hyperbole）（QualityMaxim）,-Mrs.Xisanoldbag.-Theweatherhasbeenquitedelightfulthissummer,hasntit?

（RelationMaxim）-Canyouanswerthetelephone?

-Iaminthebath.（RelationMaxim）,-Letsgetthekidssomething.-Okay,butIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.（MannerMaxim）甲:

现在是原子时代,人类都飞上天空去了,到宇宙间去了。

人家研究原子、核子、电子、离子乙:

这我懂,原子、电子、饺子、包子甲:

包子?

侯宝林:

阴阳五行（MannerMaxim）,Twotypesofimplicatures,Generalizedimplicatures一般性会话含义Particularizedimplicatures特殊性会话含义,Generalizedimplicatures,obtainedbyassumingthatthespeakerisobservingCP（notdependentoncontext）QualityMaxim（anassertionistrue;aquestionrequestsinformation）Aelephantisbiggerthananant.（Ibelieveandhaveadequateevidence）Doeshehaveanychildren?

（Idontknowandwanttoknow）,QuantityMaxim（astatementisstrongestandmostinformative）Michaelhasfourdictionaries.（Hehasonly4）RelationMaxim-Iamoutofpetrol.-Thereisagarageatthecorner.（Youcangetpetrolfromthegarage.）,MannerMaximOpenthedoor.（Thehearerknowshowtoopenthedoor.）Gotothedoor,putthekeyintothelock,turnthekeyclockwisetwotimesandpush.,Particularizedimplicature,Generatedbyovertlyanddeliberatelyviolatingsomesubmaximsforcommunicationpurposes（dependentoncontext）A:

Whatifthecorruptionisspreadandunchecked?

B:

Oh,comeon,thoseofficialsarefirst-ratepublicservant.violationofQualityMaximandRelationMaximImplicature:

weshouldpreventofficialsfrombeingcorrupt,5factorstoworkoutaconversationalimplicature:

1）Theconventionalmeaningoftheutterance2）TheCPandsubmaxims3）Thecontext（time,place,people,attitude）4）Themutualunderstandingoftheparticipants5）Alltheseareaccessibletotheparticipants,FiveFeaturesofImplicatures,1.cancellability可取消性2.non-detachability不可分离性3.calculability可推导性4.non-conventionality非规约性5.indeterminacy不确定性,1.cancellability可取消性Conversationalimplicaturecanbecancellableormoreexactlydefeasible.Aninferenceisdefeasibleifitispossibletocancelitbyaddingsomeadditionalpremisestotheoriginalones.,Johnhasthreecows.（only3）Johnhasthreecows,ifnomore.（atleast3）Thepolicecameinandeveryoneswallowedtheircigarettes.（notordinarycigarettes,butsomethingillegal,suchasmarajuana）Thepolicecameinandeveryoneswallowedtheircigarettes,thoughtheyweredoingnothingillegal.,2.non-detachability不可分离性Implicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid,nottothelinguisticform,andthereforeimplicaturescannotbedetachedfromutterancessimplybychangingthewordsoftheutteranceforsynonyms.（MannerMaximisanexception:

relatedtoformnotcontent）,-Mrs.Xisanoldbag.-Theweatherhasbeenquitedelightfulthissummer,hasntit?

Whatabeautifuldress!

Yoursonisverysmart!

Themusicisgreat!

3.calculability可推导性Onemustbeabletoworkoutanimplicature,regardlessofitssimplicityorintuitiveness.,4.non-conventionality非规约性Implicaturesarenon-conventional.Theyarenotpartoftheconventionalmeaningoflinguisticexpressionsandmustbetreatedaccordingtothecontext.Isthisyourpen?

5.indeterminacy不确定性Anexpressionwithasinglemeaningcangiverisetodifferentimplicaturesasthecontextsandparticipantsvary.Heisanox.Mild?

Stubborn（stubbornasanox）?

Stupid（dumbox）?

2.3Relevancetheory（SperberandWilson）,SperberandWilson（1986）challengedthecooperativeprinciple.Theyquestioneditastheoverarchingprinciple.Theyalsoquestionedtherelationshipsbetweenthefourmaxims.DanSperber,SperberandWilsonsideas:

1.Eachparticipantmustmakecontributionsrelevanttothetopicorpreviousinformation.2.Theprinciplebywhichweareabletotellcoherentutterancesfrompilesofirrelevantlyconnectedutterancesisrelevance.3.Relevanceofoneutterancetoanothermakesutterancescoherentandmeaningful.4.Butdifferentdegreesofrelevanceexist.,Example:

A:

Whatisthetime?

B1:

Its10:

20B2:

Themailhasalreadycome.B1isthedirectanswertoA,thereforenoinferenceiscalledupon.B2involvesaseriesofinferencesbeforeconcl