最新简明语言学教程考研资料.docx

最新简明语言学教程考研资料.docx

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最新简明语言学教程考研资料

简明语言学教程考研资料

戴炜栋简明语言学教程笔记

Chapter1 Whatislanguage?

[A]Theoriginsoflanguage

Somespeculationsoftheoriginsoflanguage:

①Thedivinesource

Thebasichypothesis:

ifinfantswereallowedtogrowupwithouthearinganylanguage,thentheywouldspontaneouslybeginusingtheoriginalgod-givenlanguage.

Actually,childrenlivingwithoutaccesstohumanspeechintheirearlyyearsgrowupwithnolanguageatall.

②Thenatural-soundsource

Thebow-wowtheory:

thesuggestionisthatprimitivewordscouldhavebeenimitationsofthenaturalsoundswhichearlymenandwomenheardaroundthem.

The“Yo-heave-ho”theory:

thesoundsproducedbyhumanswhenexertingphysicaleffort,especiallywhenco-operatingwithotherhumans,maybetheoriginsofspeechsounds.

Onomatopoeicsounds

③Theoral-gesturesource

Itisclaimedthatoriginallyasetofphysicalgestureswasdevelopedasameansofcommunication.

Thepatternsofmovementinarticulationwouldbethesameasgesturalmovement;hencewavingtonguewoulddevelopfromwavinghand.

④Glossogenetics（言语遗传学）

Thisfocusesmainlyonthebiologicalbasisoftheformationanddevelopmentofhumanlanguage.

Physiologicaladaptationàdevelopnamingabilityàinteractionsandtransactions

Physicaladaptation:

Humanteethareuprightandroughlyeveninheight.

Humanlipshaveintricatemuscleinterlacing,thusmakingthemveryflexible.

Thehumanmouthissmallandcontainsaveryflexibletongue.

Thehumanlarynxislowered,creatingalongercavitycalledthepharynx,andmakingiteasierforthehumantochokeonthepiecesoffood,butmakingthesoundspeechpossible.

Thehumanbrainislateralized.Thoseanalyticfunctions（tool-usingandlanguage）arelargelyconfinedtothelefthemisphereofthebrainformosthumans.

Twomajorfunctionsoflanguage:

Interactional:

asocialfunctionoflanguage.

Transactional:

afunctioninvolvingthecommunicationofknowledgeandinformation

[B]Thepropertiesoflanguage

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

a）System:

combinedtogetheraccordingtorules

b）Arbitrary:

nointrinsicconnectionbetweentheword“pen”andthethingintheworldwhichitrefersto

c）Vocal:

theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages

d）Human:

languageishuman-specific（交际性与信息性）

Communicativevs.Informative:

Communicative:

intentionallyusinglanguagetocommunicatesomething

Informative:

through/viaanumberofsignalsthatarenotintentionallysent

Designfeatures（uniqueproperties）:

thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication

①Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）

Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker（refertopastandfuturetimeandtootherlocations）

②Arbitrariness（任意性）

Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetweenalinguisticform（eithersoundorword）anditsmeaning.

Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.

a）echoofthesoundsofobjectsoractivities:

onomatopoeicwords

b）somecompoundwords

③Productivity（能产性，创造性）

Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.（Creativityoropen-endedness）

④Culturaltransition（文化传递性）

Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis（everyonewasbornwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage）,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnt.

⑤Discreteness（可分离性）

Eachsoundinthelanguageistreatedasdiscrete.

⑥Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）

Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword（doublearticulation）

Theabovesixpropertiesmaybetakenasthecorefeaturesofhumanlanguage.

Vocal-auditorychannel,reciprocity,specialization,non-directionality,orrapidfade,thesepropertiesarebesttreatedaswaysofdescribinghumanlanguage,butnotasameansofdistinguishingitfromothersystemsofcommunication.

[C]Thedevelopmentofwrittenlanguage

①pictograms&ideograms（象形文字和表意文字）

Pictogram:

whensomeofthepicturescametorepresentparticularimagesinaconsistentway,wecanbegintodescribetheproductasaformofpicture-writing,orpictograms.

Ideogram:

thepicturedevelopedasmoreabstractandusedotherthanitsentityisconsideredtobepartofasystemofidea-writing,orideogram

Hieroglyph:

古埃及象形文字

②Logograms（语标书写法）

Whensymbolscometobeusedtorepresentwordsinalanguage,theyaredescribedasexamplesofword-writing,orlogograms.

“Arbitrariness”—awritingsystemwhichwasword-basedhadcomeintoexistence.

Cuneiform--楔形文字—theSumerians（5000and6000yearsago）

Chineseisoneexampleofitsmodernwritingsystem.

Advantages:

twodifferentdialectscanbebasedonthesamewritingsystem.

Disadvantages:

vastnumberofdifferentwrittenforms.

③Syllabicwriting（音节书写法）

Whenawritingsystememploysasetofsymbolswhichrepresentthepronunciationsofsyllables,itisdescribedassyllabicwriting.

ThePhoenicians:

thefirsthumanbeingsthatappliedthefulluseofasyllabicwritingsystem（ca1000BC）

④Alphabeticwriting（字母书写法）

Semiticlanguages（ArabicandHebrew）:

firstappliedthisrule

TheGreeks:

takingtheinherentlysyllabicsystemfromthePhoeniciansviatheRomans

LatinalphabetandCyrillicalphabet（Slaviclanguages）

⑤Rebuswriting

Robuswritingevolvesaprocesswherebythesymbolusedforanentitycomestobeusedforthesoundofthespokenwordusedforthatentity.

Chapter2 Whatislinguistics?

[A]Thedefinitionoflinguistics

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.

Processoflinguisticstudy:

①Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed;

②Hypothesesareformulated;

③Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;

④Alinguistictheoryisconstructed.

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

[B]Thescopeoflinguistics

Generallinguistics:

thestudyoflanguageasawhole

Phonetics:

thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds（orthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage）（Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified）

Phonology:

isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.（Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning）

Morphology:

thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords（howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords）

Syntax:

thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences（howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences）

Semantics:

thestudyofmeaninginabstraction

Pragmatics:

thestudyofmeaningincontextofuse

Sociolinguistics:

thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety

Psycholinguistics:

thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofthemind

Appliedlinguistics:

theapplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning

Anthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;computationallinguistics

[C]Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics

①Prescriptivevs.Descriptive

②Synchronicvs.Diachronic

Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime;

Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.

③Speechandwriting

Spokenlanguageisprimary,notthewritten

④Langueandparole

ProposedbySwisslinguistsF.deSausse（sociological）

Langue:

referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity

Parole:

referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse

⑤Competenceandperformance

ProposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky（psychological）

Competence:

theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage

Chapter3 Phoneticsandphonology

[A]Thedefinitionofphonetics

Phonetics:

thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:

itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.

Articulatoryphonetics:

thestudyofhowspeechsoundsaremade,orarticulated.

Acousticphonetics:

dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofspeechassoundwavesintheair.

Auditory（orperceptual）phonetics:

dealswiththeperception,viatheear,ofspeechsounds.

Forensicphonetics:

hasanapplicationinlegalcasesinvolvingspeakeridentificationandtheanalysisofrecordedutterances.

[B]Organsofspeech

Voiceless:

whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.

Voiced:

whenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect.

AlltheEnglishvowelsaretypicallyvoiced（voicing）.

Theimportantcavities:

Thepharyngealcavity

Theoralcavity

Thenasalcavity

Lips,teeth,teethridge（alveolus）,hardpalate,softpalate（velum）,uvula,tipoftongue,bladeoftongue,backoftongue,vocalcords

[C]Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds

Broadandnarrowtranscriptions

IPA（InternationalPhoneticAlphabet/Association）

Broadtranscription:

thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly

Narrowtranscription:

thetranscriptionwithdiacritics

E.g.:

[l]à[li:

f]--àaclear[l]（nodiacritic）

[l]à[bild]--àadark[l]（~）

[l]à[helW]--àadental[l]（）

[p]à[pit]--àanaspirated[ph]（h）

[p]à[spit]--àanunaspirated[p]（nodiacritic）

[n]à[5bQtn]àasyllabicnasal[n]（7）

[D]ClassificationofEnglishconsonants

Intermsofmannerofarticulation（themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated）

①Stops:

theobstructionistotalorcomplete,andthengoingabruptly

[p]/[b],[t]/[d],[k]/[g]

②Fricatives:

theobstructionispartial,andtheairisfo