lecture 5 pragmaticsWord下载.docx

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thestudyoftheformalrelationofsignstooneanother.

•Semantics:

thestudyoftherelationsofsignstotheobjectstowhichthesignsareapplicable.

•Pragmatics:

thestudyoftherelationofsignstointerpreters

•Threeimportantissuesintheestablishmentofpragmatics

•In1977MeyandHaberlandstartedtheJournalofPragmaticsinHolland.

•In1983LevinsonandLeechpublishedtheirrespectiveworksPragmaticsandPrincipleofPragmatics,whichsetupthetheoreticsystemofpragmatics.

•theInternationalPragmaticsAssociationthatwassetupin1988

•Micro-pragmatics,Macro-pragmaticsandMeta-pragmatics

•Micro-pragmatics:

ontheleveloflanguageusing,centeringuponthediscussionofpragmatictasksarousedbytheunderstandingoflanguagesymbols’referenceandimplicatureduringconversation,includingContext,Conversationalimplicature,Reference,PragmaticPrinciples,speechActsandConversationAnalysis.

•ThreestagesofthedevelopmentofPragmatics

•Thefirststage（late1930stolate1940s）

•somephilosopherssuchasPierce,MorrisandCarnapconsideredpragmaticstobeabranchofsemiologyandallthestudieswerewithinthedomainofphilosophy;

•Thesecondstage（thebeginningof1950stolate1960s）.

•threefamousphilosopherscalledAustin,SearleandGricemadestudiedonspeechactandimplicaturetheory,andtheirachievementssustainedthebasictheoryofpragmatics.Thestudieswerestillwithinthedomainofphilosophythen;

•Thethirdstage（after1970stonow）,threebiggestissueshappenedandpragmaticsbecameanindependentdiscipline.

•NewDevelopment

•Sincethe1980sPragmatics,asanindependentdiscipline,hasbeendevelopingveryquicklyandsoundly.

•sofar,ithasgotdelightfulachievementsandattractedmoreandmorestudentsandscholarstoconductresearchesonit.

•Andnow,pragmaticshasnewdevelopment,manyscholarsbegintodocrossstudies.Suchasinteractionalsociolinguistics,interlanguagepragmatics,cross-culturalpragmatics,pragmaticsandtranslation,pragmaticsandlanguageteaching.

•pragmalinguisticsandsociopragmatics,cognitivepragmaticsandclinicalpragmatics.

•2.DefinitionsofPragmatics

•AccordingLevinson（1983）,asetofpossibledefinitionsofpragmaticshavebeenconsidered.Someofthemarelistedasfollows:

•1）Pragmaticsisthestudyofallthoseaspectsofmeaningnotcapturedinasemantictheory.

•2）Pragmaticsisthestudyoftherelationsbetweenlanguageandcontextthatarebasictoanaccountoflanguageunderstanding.

•3）Pragmaticsisthestudyoftheabilityoflanguageuserstopairsentenceswiththecontextsinwhichtheywouldbeappropriate.

•Akajam（1979）alsodefinespragmaticsas:

•4）Pragmaticsisthestudyoflanguageuseandlinguisticcommunication.

•Leech（1983）claims:

•5）Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowutteranceshavemeaningsinsituation.

•definitions

•Thestudyoflanguageinuse.

•Thestudyoflanguageproduction&

languagecomprehension.

•Thestudyofmeaningincontext.

•Thestudyoflanguageinrelationtoitsusers.

•Thestudyofspeakers’M,utteranceM,&

contextualM.

•Someofthefieldsinpragmatics

•deixis

•conversationalimplicature

•presupposition

•conversationanalysis

•speechacts

•Politenessprinciple

•Semanticmeaningandpragmaticmeaning

•Leech（1981）illustratestwokindsofusagesofmeaning:

oneisbivalent（“XmeansY”）andoneistrivalent（“SmeansYbyX”）.OrWhatdoesXmean?

Whatdoyoumeanbyx?

•Naturalmeaningandnonnaturalmeaning

•Sentencemeaningandutterancemeaning

•Sentencemeaning

•WhatdoesXmean?

•Sentence:

agrammaticalconcept,abstract,self-containedunitinisolationfromcontext.

•Sentencemeaning:

abstract,intrinsicproperty,decontexualized;

whichisbaseduponcertainlinguisticrules,notdependingupontheparticularcontext;

•Utterancemeaning

•WhatdoyoumeanbyX?

•Utterance:

sthaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose.

•Utterancemeaning:

concrete,context-dependent,Speakers’meaning;

•whichiscontextual-basedanddependsonthespeaker’suseofthesentenceinaspecificcontext.

•Examples

•1.“Adog!

”

•2.“Janet!

Donkeys!

•3.Johnisamachine.

•4.Isthewindowopen?

•5.It’scoldhere.

•context

•Linguisticknowledge

❿Knowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse

❿Knowledgeofwhathasbeensaidbefore

•Extra-linguisticknowledge

❿Knowledgeabouttheworldingeneral（backgroundknowledge）

❿Knowledgeaboutthespecificsituation

•（situationalknowledge）

•3.Knowledgeabouteachother（mutualknowledge）

•ItwasahotChristmasdaysowewentdowntothebeachintheafternoonandhadagoodtimeswimmingandsurfing.

•A:

Doyoulikerugby?

•B:

IamaNewZealander.

YouspeakbeautifulEnglish.

MyEnglishisverypoor.

•examples

•“Yes,Ido.”

•“InamethisshiptheQueenElizabeth.”

•“Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.”

•“Isimplyloveyourtie.”

•“Doyouwantyourdin-din?

”

•“Mr.Smith,canIgetyourcoat?

•吃过了吗?

（时间、地点不同产生不同意义吗？

）

•Ihaven’tgotaknife.

•1、两个熟人打招呼。

•2、说话人手里拿着包子。

•3、说话人与听话人约好去超市，催促动身。

•4、说话人与听话人密谋害人。

•Mutualknowledge:

examples

Areyougoingtotheseminar?

It’sonlinguistics.

Wouldyoulikesomecoffee?

Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.

这件衣服很漂亮，可惜我今天带的钱不够了。

那就下次再买吧。

•Context&

languageuse

•Contextdeterminesthehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.

•Contextgovernsthespeaker’suseoflanguage.

•In-classconversationvs.after-class

•Borrowingapenvs.200yuan

•Borrowingsthfromyourclassmatesvs.fromyourteacher

•Talkingtoatwo-year-oldvs.yourparents

•Talkingtoagirlfriendvs.boyfriend

•Importanttheoriesandprinciplesinpragmatics

•1.Speechacttheory

•2.Conversationalimplicature1:

•theGriceantheory,thecooperativeprinciple

•3.Conversationalimplicature2:

Relevancetheory

•4.Politenessprinciple

•5.Conversationanalysis

•1.SpeechActTheory

ByJ.Austin（1962）&

J.Searle（1969）

•SpeechActTheory

•speechacts:

actionsperformedviautterances

•Thebasicunitforhumancommunicationisnotsentenceortheothermeans,butistoperformcertainkindsofactionsuchas“statement,pledge,question,order,expressinggratitude,apology,congratulation,etc.”

•1.“Canyouclosethewindows,please?

”/”Shallwechangeanotherroom?

”（suggestion）

•2.“HowIenvyhim!

”（envy,jealousy）

•Constativesvs.performatives

•AccordingtoAustin,sentencescanbesubdividedintotwocategories.

•Constatives（叙述句）:

utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingis.Asentenceiscapableofexpressingacompletethoughtormeaning.Wecanjudgewhetherthesentenceistrueornotbyitsmeaning.

•“Theearthisflat.”（=aproposition+astatement）

•e.g.:

•IgototheparkeverySunday.

•IteachEnglish.

•Constativesvs.performatives

•Performatives（行为句or施为句）:

utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts,donotdescribeorreportanythingatall;

theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction.Peopleusesentences（utterance）todothings.Wecanjudgewhetheraperformativeisvalidornotbyfelicity.

•“I’llcometodinnertomorrow.”（=aproposition+apromise）

•Exampleofinfelicity:

•Anemployee:

“Inominateyouthepresident/premier”

•“Iordertheearthtostopmoving.”

•Ido.

•InamethisshipQueenElizabeth.

•Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.

•Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.

•Illocutionary

•Alocutionaryact:

theactofsayingsomethinginthefullsenseof“say”.

•Anillocutionaryact:

anactperformedinsayingsomething.

•InsayingX,IwasdoingY.

•Insaying“Iwillcometomorrow.”,Iwasmakingapromise.

•Illocutionaryforce

•Aperlocutionaryact:

theactpreformedbyorasaresultofsaying,theeffectsonthehearer.

•BysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.

•Bysaying“Iwillcometomorrow”andmakingapromise,Ireassuremyfriends.

•Shoother!

•IndirectSpeechActs

•Acts“inwhichoneillocutionaryactisperformedindirectlybywayofperforminganother.”

•Thetrueillocutionaryforceofanindirectspeechactcanbeinferredfromthefactthatoneormoreofthefelicityconditionsofthe“surface”speechacthavebeenobviouslyviolated,whileatthesametimeoneormoreofthefelicityconditionsfortheindirectspeechacthavebeenmentionedorquestioned.

•Thefeatureofindirectspeechactsistheoriginofmanypoliteturnsofphrase.

•IndirectSpeechAct

•Anindirectspeechactisoneperformedbymeansofanother.

•SentencesconcerningH’sabilitytoperformA:

•Canyoureachthesalt?

•Couldyoubealittlemorequiet?

•

•Searle’sclassificationofspeechacts

•1.Representatives（断言行为）:

statingordescribing,sayingwhatthesp