荷兰的仲裁过去 现在和未来.docx

荷兰的仲裁过去 现在和未来.docx

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荷兰的仲裁过去现在和未来

MEDIATIONINTHENETHERLANDS:

PAST-PRESENT-FUTURE

AnniedeRooandRobJagtenberg*IIC

1Introduction:

modernmediationanditspredecessors

Thesubjectofthisreport,mediation,hasbeenaddressedbeforeatconferencesoftheInternationalAcademyofComparativeLaw,mostrecentlyatthe10thInternationalCongress,heldinBudapestin1978.TheDutchnationalreporteratthattime,JudgeElders,hadconfinedhisreportto[]theuseofconciliationfordisputesettlementincivilprocedure（emphasisadded）.Thescopeofthepresentreportiswider,andnotwithoutreason.Recentmediationdevelopmentslargelyunfoldedoutsidethecourts,althoughtheemergingmediationschemesarelinkedtothecourtsandthelawofprocedureinvariousways.

TheAnglo-AmericantermmediationfirstsurfacedintheNetherlandsintheearly1990sandhasbecomepartofDutch（legal）languagesince.ThisdoesnotmeanthatmediationasamodeofdisputeresolutionwashithertounknownintheNetherlands.Mediation,asaprocessofthirdpartyassistedbargaining,hadexistedforseveralcenturies,albeitunderdifferentDutchnames,suchasbemiddeling,verzoening,conciliatieor（sometimes）comparitie.Thesemethodsofdisputeresolutionwerecommonlypractisedasaside-activitybyjudges,mayors,oryetotherfunctionaries,usingtheirintuition,experienceoflife,ormereauthority.

Hereliesanessentialdifferencewiththemodernmediation.Whatissomodernaboutmodernmediation?

Inmodernmediation,thetechniqueshavebeensystematisedandrefinedonthebasisofexperimental,predominantlyAmericanresearch.Thebenefitsofprincipledbargaining-focussingoninterests-havebeenanalysedandpracticalinsightshavebeenaccumulated.Onthisbasis,mediationhaschangedintoaprofessionalactivity:

mediatorshavetodemonstratetheymasterthenewbodyofexpertknowledge,theymustbecertified,andtheyareassumedtoknowhowtonavigateonthebasisoftheirexpertise.Theymustbeassociatedwithprofessionalbodiesthatmonitorqualityandguaranteestatus.Anothernoveltyistheinstitutionalplaceofmediation.Modernmediationispropagatedbyspecialisedmediationagencies,whichareincreasinglyannexedtothecourts.

Beforediscussingmodernmediationindetail,atleastsomeexamplesofhistoricalmediation,andpresentday（quasi-）arbitration,mustbegiventoallowaproperunderstandingofDutchlegalculture.

Historicalevidenceofmediationgoesbackformanycenturies.Aninteresting,welldocumentedmediationpracticewasthatofthe16thcenturyLeidseVredemakers（LeydenPeacemakers）.VoltairefamiliarisedhisFrenchreaderswiththisinstitutionandthelawmakersoftheFrenchrevolutionerare-introducedthepeacemakersasBureauxdePaix,andsubsequentlyJugesdePaixinFranceandtheNetherlands;afascinatingexampleofalegaltransplant.AsfromtheintroductionofJugesdePaix（inDutch:

Vrederechters,andlaterKantonrechters）itwasnotuncommontofindjudgesactingasmediatorsinthecourtroom.Thisin-courtmediationusedtobepractisedinfamilydisputes,particularlydivorcecases,oftenwiththeaimtosavethemarriage.IntheNetherlandsandvariousotherjurisdictionsontheEuropeancontinent,thecodesofcivilproceduredictatedajudicialattemptatmediatingacase,oftenpriortoafullhearingincourt.Suchpreliminaryconciliationshowever,wereabolishedalmosteverywhereinEuropeinthe1950sand1960s.

Mediationalsousedtobepractisedoutsidethecourts.Industrialrelationsandlabourdisputesconstituteanillustrativeareahere.Firsttracesoflabourdisputesettlementoutsidethecourtsappearedinthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury,originallyasprivateinitiatives.Inthisnewlyemergingareaoflaw,conciliation,mediationandarbitration,forsometime,evenbecametheregularmodesofdisputeresolutionwith,however,varyingdegreesofsuccess.Successappearedtocorrelatepositivelywiththevoluntarycharacterofthese19thcenturyinstitutions.Assoonastheirproceedingsbecamecompulsory,theirsuccesswasonthewane.

In1923theDutchgovernmentintroducedtheinstitutionoftheRijksbemiddelaar（GovernmentMediator）,whichnotretainedafterWorldWarII.Itwasnotembeddedintheemergingconsultationschemesbetweenemployersandunionsandthereforemetlittleacceptance.

OtherformsofalternativedisputeresolutionproliferatedthroughouttheNetherlandsduringtheperiod1950-1990.Incommercialdisputes,arbitrationbecameapopular,institutionalisedoption,forreasonsofexpertise,confidentialityandtheopportunitiesforinternationalenforcementofarbitralawards.

Inthenewareaofconsumerlawatrendofsettlingdisputesthroughso-calledGeschillencommissies（DisputesCommittees）emerged.IntheNetherlands,theactivitiesofthesebodiesarecharacterisedasquasirechtspraak（quasiadjudication）.Generally,theyarecomposedofanindependent-lawyer,actingaschairperson,whowillbeassistedbyarepresentativeofaconsumerorganisationandarepresentativeoftheparticularbranchofindustryconcerned.Overall,thesecommitteespractisethemethodofbindendadvies（bindingadvice）,consideredattractivebecauseoftheinformalityoftheprocess.

Inthe1970sand1980s,Dutchcitizensbecameincreasinglydissatisfiedwiththeoperationofthelawduetoinaccessibilityofthecourts,overcrowdeddockets,increasedformalism,longdelaysandhighcosts.Thesefactorswerestrongincentivestoconsiderothermodesofdisputeresolution.Inaddition,itwasfeltthatcourtswereoftennotwellequippedtoaddressthenucleusoftheproblem,andtoreallysolvethedisputesubmitted.OnlyahandfulofacademicsandpractisinglawyerssoughtinspirationinthemodernmediationtechniquesintheUS.AnearlyadvocateofmediationwastheRotterdamprofessoroffamilylaw,PeterHoefnagels,whocombinesthepracticeandacademicstudyofmediationsince1974.

Alltheseexamplesmayhavecreatedafertilesoilfortheupcomingmodernmediation.

Asindicated,theriseofmodernmediationbeganintheUS,whereschemesemergedinavarietyofareasinthelate1970s.TheAmericanenthusiasmforprofessional,institutionalisedmediationspreadtoEurope,inthelate1980sandearly1990s.IntheNetherlands,initially,itwereparticularlyrepresentativesoftheprivatesectorthatbecameinterestedandinvolvedinADR,inspiredbyUSandUKdevelopments.

2Privateinitiative

1992isanimportantyearintherecenthistoryofmodernDutchmediation.Forthefirsttimeagroupofpeople,mainlylegalprofessionals,cametogethertodiscussthepromiseandprospectsofmediation.Someoftheseearlyfightersformediation,basingthemselvesontheirpersonalandprofessionalexperiences,hadbecomedissatisfiedwiththeoutcomesoflegalsolutions,oftenignoringtheparticularneedsofparties.

Fromtheverybeginningcontactwassoughtwiththegovernment,whichresultedinalivelyexchangeofideasandviews.Thegovernmentalparticipationwouldappeartobemainlydirectedatinitiatingandfinancingexperiments.

In1993theNederlandsMediationInstituut（NetherlandsMediationInstitute）NMIwasformallyestablishedasafoundation,withthemainpurposeofinformingthepeopleatlargeaboutmediationandstimulatingandfurtheringthepractiseandqualityofmediation.

Intheearlystageofitsformation,NMIwasinspiredbytheAmericanCenterforPublicResourcesandtheBritishCentreforDisputeResolution.ThepioneersoftheseinstitutionshadbeentheAmericanandBritishbusinesscommunities.UnlikeCPRandCEDR,however,NMIwishestoserveallbranchesinsocietywithaninterestinmediation.

NMImaintainsaregisterofaccreditedNMI-mediatorsandliaiseswithotherinstitutionsandgovernmentdepartments.ToberegisteredasaNMI-mediatoronemusthaveattended（withsuccess）oneoftheNMI-accreditedmediationtrainingcourses.Inaddition,thereisanannualcontributionofapproximately200EUROdue.NMIhasitsownmediationanddisciplinaryrules,codeofconduct,andcomplaintprocedure,whichtheNMI-mediatorhastocomplywith.Consideringitsactivities,NMIcanberegardedasanumbrellaorganisation.

TheestablishmentofNMIwasthefirstsignofinstitutionalisationofmediationintheNetherlands.Todate,therearemorethan2000NMI-mediatorsandtherearemoremediatorstocome.Itissurprisingthatmostmediationtrainingprogrammesare-still-fullybooked.Thenumberisexorbitant,whencomparedtothetotalnumberofmediationsconcluded.Between1996-2001,1222mediationswereinitiatedthroughNMI.Thisnumberimpliesthatonaverageonemediatorhandleshalfamediationannually!

This（over）supplyofmediatorsisnotwellbalancedwiththedemandformediation:

thefrustrationofDutchmediators.

3Governmentinterest

ThefoundationofNMIwasanimpetusforthegovernment,inparticulartheMinistryofJustice,toengageinmediation.OneofthefirstactionsoftheMinistryofJusticewastheinstallationoftheso-calledPlatformADRinAugust1996.Itsmaintaskwastoinvestigatetheprospectsformediationincourtproceedings.Thecompositionofthecommitteewaswide.Therewererepresentativesofthejudiciary,legalprofession,academiccommunity,andtheministryitself.ThemajorfindingsandrecommendationsoftheplatformwerelaiddowninitsfinalreportConflictbemiddeling（Conflictmediation）.UndertheauspicesofthePlatformADRtwocourtannexedmediationpilotprojectswereundertaken.Animportantfindingwasthatthereferraltomediationbyjudgesandlegalaidbureauswasproblematic.

AmajorrecommendationbythePlatformADRwastocontinueexper