可持续发展和地下水资源的开采外文翻译文档格式.docx

可持续发展和地下水资源的开采外文翻译文档格式.docx

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EnvironmentalGeology342/3May1998Springer-Verlag

作者:

F.VillarroyaC.R.Aldwell

AbstractInevaluatinggroundwaterdevelopmentboththepositiveandnegativeeffectsmustbeconsidered;

otherwisebiasedconclusionsmaybereached.Onlywithequalconcernfortheneedsofpresentandfuturegenerations,fairexchangeoftechnologybetweencountriesanduserinvolvementcansustainablegroundwaterdevelopmentbeachieved.Examinationoftheuseofthetermaquiferoverexploitationshowsthatthereisnoagreementonasingledefinition.Inmostcasesitrelatestotheoveruseofaquifers,butinothercasesitisaplannedoveruse.

InSpain,overexploitationisdealtwithinthewateractandimplementedbytheregulationsthatenforcethatact.Experiencehasshownthatwithoutthecooperationofthewaterusersthemselves,goodresultsarenotobtained.Relevanteducationisurgentlyneededforthepublicandthosedecisionmakersresponsiblefordeterminingthecorrectuseof

groundwaterresourcesforthepresentandfuturegenerations.

KeywordsGroundwaterdevelopment,Aquiferoverexploitation

Arefuturegroundwaterresourcesatrisk?

Toanswerthequestionwhetherfuturegroundwaterresourcesareatrisk,itisnecessarytostudyboththequantityandqualityaspectsofgroundwater.WatersurfaceandgroundwaterisoneofthemostpervasivesubstancesonEarth.Thetotalvolumeofallwaterisabout1400million

km3,butonly2%isfreshwater.Thecurrentrateofwithdrawalisabout3500km3/year,some2100km3forconsumptiveuse,while1400km3ofwastewaterisreturnedtorivers.Groundwaterwithdrawalspercentbysectorsare:

domestic,industryandagricultureShiklomanov1991.Margat1991stressedtheneedtoimprovewaterevaluationstudiesandquantifiedtheamountofgroundwaterpumpageuseinvariouscountries.

Hislistplacesthefirstfifteencountriesasfollowsinkm3peryear:

India150,USA101,China74.6,USSRformer45,Pakistan45,Iran29,Mexico23,Japan13.1,Italy12.1,Germany9.5,SaudiArabia7.4,France7,Spain6.3,Turkey5andMadagascar4.9.

Themainthreattogroundwatertodayisfrompointanddiffusesourcepollution.Thereforegroundwaterqualityprotectionisthekeyissueofgroundwaterresourcespolicyintheindustrializedcountries.Therearemanysourcesofrisktogroundwater,asdiscussedintheseminarongroundwaterfortheEUcountries.RIVMandRIZA1991summarizetheproblemsandthreatstogroundwaterresources.ThecurrentpracticesinalltheEUcountriesleadtoanon-sustainableuseofgroundwatersystems.ThedramaticDublinStatementemphasizestheunsustainableuseofgroundwater:

“Humanhealthandwelfare,foodsecurity,industrialdevelopmentandtheecosystemsonwhichtheydepend,areallatrisk,unlesswaterandlandresourcesaremanagedmoreeffectivelyinthepresentdecadeandbeyondthantheyhavebeeninthepast”.

Groundwaterresourcesexploitationandsustainabledevelopment

Whatdoessustainabledevelopmentmean?

Infact,weareaskingifweareusingwiselytheresourcesneededforourlife-supportsystemThegeneralconclusionoftheseminarofministersoftheEnvironmentoftheEUcountries,wasthatinmanycountriessustainableuseofgroundwaterfordrinkingandotherindustrial,ecological,etc.functionsisbeingthreatened,especiallyintheagriculturalandindustrialcoreregionsoftheEU.

Sustainabledevelopmentmustsatisfypresentneedswithoutjeopardizingtheabilityoffuturegenerationstosatisfytheirs.Overexploitationmaytakeplaceduringaperiodtoallowbetteruseofotherresources,orwhileothertechnologiesdevelop.Uncontrolledaquiferdevelopmenteasilyleadstoextensiveaquiferexploitationandeventosevereformsofoverexploitation.

Aquiferexploitationandsustainabledevelopment

Margat1993speaksofMalthusianunderexploitationinthecaseofinadequateuseofanaquifer.IntheopinionofCustodio1993,“intensiveaquiferexploitationisasourceofwealth,whichfostersregionaldevelopmentandhelpstoguaranteeasupplyuntilotherwatersourcescanbeeconomicallydeveloped”.

Groundwateroverexploitationhasaseriesofnegativeconsequences,suchasincreasingwatercost,environmentalchangesaffectsonwetlands,salinityproblems,etc,reductionofotherwatersourcesalreadyinuse,watersalinizationandimpairmentofquality.Thenetresult,however,maybeeithernegativeorpositive.Positiveresultsdominateataregionallevel,butnegativeresultsare“newsthattriggeralarmbellsandMalthusianforecstsmundertheheadingofoverexploitation”Custodio1993.Ontheotherhand,intensiveexploitationoroverdraftaremainlypointsofview,referringtotheconsequencesofintensivegroundwateruse,asperceivedbyenvironmentalists,thenewsmediaandthepublicin

general,andplaceemphasisontheadverseordetrimentalaspects.

Therefore,inordertoevaluategroundwaterexploitation,notonlynegativeeffectsbutalsopositiveoneshavetobeconsidered:

“otherwiseabiasedappraisalmaybereached.Normally,practiceshowsusthatbeneficialaspectsdominateoverdetrimentalonesinmostpracticalsituations”Custodio1993.Accordingtothislastauthor,themostseriouscauseofaquiferexploitationisignoranceofwhatishappening,andnegligenceinproducingthedataneededtoevaluatethehydrogeologicalandeconomicsituationcorrectly.Anotherharmfuleffectistheirresponsibleoverreactionofwaterauthorities,especiallywhentheyarepoorlyinformedorlackthescientificandtechnicalskillstoevaluatecurrentproblemscorrectly.

Themostimportantactionistosolveproblemsastheyappearandnotwastetimeandenergyindefiningterms.Anyexploitationofwaterresourcesthatisnotmanagedinanintegratedway,takingintoaccounttheneedsofthepresentandfuturegenerations,putstheseresourcesatrisk.Suchdevelopmentthereforeisnotsustainable.

RegulatoryissuesrelatedtoaquiferoverexploitationAquiferoverexploitation

Theintroductionlistsseveralrecentconferenceswhichhavehighlightedoverexploitationofaquifers.Withintheconferenceproceedings,thereisnosingleagreeddefinitionofoverexploitation.

SpanishLegislationRoyalDecree849/1986definesitinarticle171.2inthefollowingterms:

“Anaquifershallbeconsideredtobeoverexploited,orindangerthereof,ifthereservesexistingthereinarebeingplacedinimmediatedangerasaresultofannualwithdrawalsthatareinexcessof,orverycloseto,thevolumeoftheaverageannualrechargerenewableresourceorwhichgiverisetoseriousdeteriorationinthequalityofthewater

AccordingtoDijonandCustodio1992,exceedingthelimitsofarenewableresourceisnotnecessarilyoverexploitation.Conversely,stayingwithinthelimitsofthesamedoesnotnecessarilyimplythatallundesirableeffectsarebeingavoidedandthebeneficialeffectsenhanced.

Llamas1992suggestseithertheeliminationoraveryrestricteduseoftheterm.Inbrief,hedefinesoverexploitation“sensustricto”as

allextractionofgroundwaterwhichhaseffectsphysical,chemical,economic,ecologicalorsocialwhicharenegativeforhumanlife,noworinthefuture.Thistypeofoverexploitationshouldbeavoidedformoralreasons.Forexploitationbasedontheextractionofwatergreaterthantheaveragerechargeoftheaquiferhesuggeststheterm“overexploitationsensulato”.

Inthepaperspresentedatthe23rdInternationalCongressofIAH,itwasstatedthatinmanycases,overexploitationissynonymouswithinefficientexploitationofanaquiferVillarroya1994;

VillarroyaandRebollo1993.Duringthiscongressnumerousexamplesof“excessiveexploitation”Custodio1991fromallovertheworldwerepresented,andasummarycanbefoundinDijonandCustodio1992.

Howcanalackofwaterresourcesaffectland-useplanning?

associations

Asalreadydescribed,theoverexploitationofanaquiferhasamarkedinfluenceontheplanningandusesofland.Waterusers

willplayaveryimportantroleinregulatingtheexploitationofnaturalresourcesingeneral,andespeciallyofwaterresources.TheparticipationofcitizensthroughNGOssuchasthewaterusers'

associationshasbeenshowntobeveryeffectiveand,onmanyoccasions,hasalleviatedseriousproblemsconcerningtheexploitationofthewaterresourcesofaregion.Theassociationshavealsobeenshowntobeeffectiveaswatchdogstoensurethatrestrictionsandregulationsarebeingcompliedwith.Inthissensewaterauthoritiesshouldtreatthemasalliesandnotopponents.

Insomesituationsgroundwaterhasanstrategicroleataninternationallevel.Someauthorsemphasizetheimportantrolegroundwatercanplayinsecuringatleastatemporallyindependentsupply.Goodexamplesofthistypeofsupplyarefoundinthenear-easterncountries.Margat1992,distinguishedthreetypesofsituation:

1.Countrieswithrenewableresourcesthereforeindependentofothers:

Lebanon,Yemen,TheCisjordanandMagrebstates.

2.Countrieswithoutrenewableresourceswhichminewater;

theArab

Emirates,Qatar,Oman,SyriaandSaudiArabia.Soonerorlater,theywillbecomedependentonotherstates.

3.

waterforoil

Countrieswhichdependheavilyonothersforwater;

Egypt,Sudan,Syria,Iraq,IsraelandJordan.Margatforeseesafutureof“exchanging

betweenthesenear-easterncountries,andtheestablishmentofnewrelationsforcedbylackofwater.Shamir1993goesevenfurtherandconsiderswatertobeanextremelyimportantfactorinpeacenegotiations.Thus,waterisnotonlyavaluableresourcebut