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Feuerbach.

OppositionoftheMaterialistandIdealistOutlook

A.IdealismandMaterialism

TheIllusionsofGermanIdeology

AswehearfromGermanideologists,Germanyhasinthelastfewyearsgonethroughanunparalleledrevolution.ThedecompositionoftheHegelianphilosophy,whichbeganwithStrauss,hasdevelopedintoauniversalfermentintowhichallthe“powersofthepast”areswept.Inthegeneralchaosmightyempireshavearisenonlytomeetwithimmediatedoom,heroeshaveemergedmomentarilyonlytobehurledbackintoobscuritybybolderandstrongerrivals.ItwasarevolutionbesidewhichtheFrenchRevolutionwaschild’splay,aworldstrugglebesidewhichthestrugglesoftheDiadochi[successorsofAlexandertheGreat]appearinsignificant.Principlesoustedoneanother,heroesofthemindoverthreweachotherwithunheard-ofrapidity,andinthethreeyears1842-45moreofthepastwassweptawayinGermanythanatothertimesinthreecenturies.

Allthisissupposedtohavetakenplaceintherealmofpurethought.

Certainlyitisaninterestingeventwearedealingwith:

theputrescenceoftheabsolutespirit.Whenthelastsparkofitslifehadfailed,thevariouscomponentsofthiscaputmortuumbegantodecompose,enteredintonewcombinationsandformednewsubstances.Theindustrialistsofphilosophy,whotillthenhadlivedontheexploitationoftheabsolutespirit,nowseizeduponthenewcombinations.Eachwithallpossiblezealsetaboutretailinghisapportionedshare.Thisnaturallygaverisetocompetition,which,tostartwith,wascarriedoninmoderatelystaidbourgeoisfashion.LaterwhentheGermanmarketwasglutted,andthecommodityinspiteofalleffortsfoundnoresponseintheworldmarket,thebusinesswasspoiledintheusualGermanmannerbyfabricatedandfictitiousproduction,deteriorationinquality,adulterationoftherawmaterials,falsificationoflabels,fictitiouspurchases,bill-jobbingandacreditsystemdevoidofanyrealbasis.Thecompetitionturnedintoabitterstruggle,whichisnowbeingextolledandinterpretedtousasarevolutionofworldsignificance,thebegetterofthemostprodigiousresultsandachievements.

Ifwewishtorateatitstruevaluethisphilosophiccharlatanry,whichawakenseveninthebreastofthehonestGermancitizenaglowofnationalpride,ifwewishtobringoutclearlythepettiness,theparochialnarrownessofthiswholeYoung-Hegelianmovementandinparticularthetragicomiccontrastbetweentheillusionsoftheseheroesabouttheirachievementsandtheactualachievementsthemselves,wemustlookatthewholespectaclefromastandpointbeyondthefrontiersofGermany.

IdeologyinGeneral,GermanIdeologyinParticular

Germancriticismhas,rightuptoitslatestefforts,neverquittedtherealmofphilosophy.Farfromexaminingitsgeneralphilosophicpremises,thewholebodyofitsinquirieshasactuallysprungfromthesoilofadefinitephilosophicalsystem,thatofHegel.Notonlyintheiranswersbutintheirveryquestionstherewasamystification.ThisdependenceonHegelisthereasonwhynotoneofthesemoderncriticshasevenattemptedacomprehensivecriticismoftheHegeliansystem,howevermucheachprofessestohaveadvancedbeyondHegel.TheirpolemicsagainstHegelandagainstoneanotherareconfinedtothis–eachextractsonesideoftheHegeliansystemandturnsthisagainstthewholesystemaswellasagainstthesidesextractedbytheothers.TobeginwiththeyextractedpureunfalsifiedHegeliancategoriessuchas“substance”and“self-consciousness,”latertheydesecratedthesecategorieswithmoresecularnamessuchasspecies“theUnique,”“Man,”etc.

TheentirebodyofGermanphilosophicalcriticismfromStrausstoStirnerisconfinedtocriticismofreligiousconceptions.Thecriticsstartedfromrealreligionandactualtheology.Whatreligiousconsciousnessandareligiousconceptionreallymeantwasdeterminedvariouslyastheywentalong.Theiradvanceconsistedinsubsumingtheallegedlydominantmetaphysical,political,juridical,moralandotherconceptionsundertheclassofreligiousortheologicalconceptions;

andsimilarlyinpronouncingpolitical,juridical,moralconsciousnessasreligiousortheological,andthepolitical,juridical,moralman–“man”inthelastresort–asreligious.Thedominanceofreligionwastakenforgranted.Graduallyeverydominantrelationshipwaspronouncedareligiousrelationshipandtransformedintoacult,acultoflaw,acultoftheState,etc.Onallsidesitwasonlyaquestionofdogmasandbeliefindogmas.Theworldwassanctifiedtoanever-increasingextenttillatlastourvenerableSaintMaxwasabletocanoniseitenblocandthusdisposeofitonceforall.

TheOldHegelianshadcomprehendedeverythingassoonasitwasreducedtoanHegelianlogicalcategory.TheYoungHegelianscriticisedeverythingbyattributingtoitreligiousconceptionsorbypronouncingitatheologicalmatter.TheYoungHegeliansareinagreementwiththeOldHegeliansintheirbeliefintheruleofreligion,ofconcepts,ofauniversalprincipleintheexistingworld.Only,theonepartyattacksthisdominionasusurpation.whiletheotherextolsitaslegitimate.

SincetheYoungHegeliansconsiderconceptions,thoughts,ideas,infactalltheproductsofconsciousness,towhichtheyattributeanindependentexistence,astherealchainsofmen（justastheOldHegeliansdeclaredthemthetruebondsofhumansociety）itisevidentthattheYoungHegelianshavetofightonlyagainsttheseillusionsofconsciousness.Since,accordingtotheirfantasy,therelationshipsofmen,alltheirdoings,theirchainsandtheirlimitationsareproductsoftheirconsciousness,theYoungHegelianslogicallyputtomenthemoralpostulateofexchangingtheirpresentconsciousnessforhuman,criticaloregoisticconsciousness,andthusofremovingtheirlimitations.Thisdemandtochangeconsciousnessamountstoademandtointerpretrealityinanotherway,i.e.torecogniseitbymeansofanotherinterpretation.TheYoung-Hegelianideologists,inspiteoftheirallegedly“world-shattering"

statements,arethestaunchestconservatives.Themostrecentofthemhavefoundthecorrectexpressionfortheiractivitywhentheydeclaretheyareonlyfightingagainst“phrases.”Theyforget,however,thattothesephrasestheythemselvesareonlyopposingotherphrases,andthattheyareinnowaycombatingtherealexistingworldwhentheyaremerelycombatingthephrasesofthisworld.Theonlyresultswhichthisphilosophiccriticismcouldachievewereafew（andatthatthoroughlyone-sided）elucidationsofChristianityfromthepointofviewofreligioushistory;

alltherestoftheirassertionsareonlyfurtherembellishmentsoftheirclaimtohavefurnished,intheseunimportantelucidations,discoveriesofuniversalimportance.

IthasnotoccurredtoanyoneofthesephilosopherstoinquireintotheconnectionofGermanphilosophywithGermanreality,therelationoftheircriticismtotheirownmaterialsurroundings.

FirstPremisesofMaterialistMethod

Thepremisesfromwhichwebeginarenotarbitraryones,notdogmas,butrealpremisesfromwhichabstractioncanonlybemadeintheimagination.Theyaretherealindividuals,theiractivityandthematerialconditionsunderwhichtheylive,boththosewhichtheyfindalreadyexistingandthoseproducedbytheiractivity.Thesepremisescanthusbeverifiedinapurelyempiricalway.

Thefirstpremiseofallhumanhistoryis,ofcourse,theexistenceoflivinghumanindividuals.Thusthefirstfacttobeestablishedisthephysicalorganisationoftheseindividualsandtheirconsequentrelationtotherestofnature.Ofcourse,wecannotheregoeitherintotheactualphysicalnatureofman,orintothenaturalconditionsinwhichmanfindshimself–geological,hydrographical,climaticandsoon.Thewritingofhistorymustalwayssetoutfromthesenaturalbasesandtheirmodificationinthecourseofhistorythroughtheactionofmen.

Mencanbedistinguishedfromanimalsbyconsciousness,byreligionoranythingelseyoulike.Theythemselvesbegintodistinguishthemselvesfromanimalsassoonastheybegintoproducetheirmeansofsubsistence,astepwhichisconditionedbytheirphysicalorganisation.Byproducingtheirmeansofsubsistencemenareindirectlyproducingtheiractualmateriallife.

Thewayinwhichmenproducetheirmeansofsubsistencedependsfirstofallonthenatureoftheactualmeansofsubsistencetheyfindinexistenceandhavetoreproduce.Thismodeofproductionmustnotbeconsideredsimplyasbeingtheproductionofthephysicalexistenceoftheindividuals.Ratheritisadefiniteformofactivityoftheseindividuals,adefiniteformofexpressingtheirlife,adefinitemodeoflifeontheirpart.Asindividualsexpresstheirlife,sotheyare.Whattheyare,therefore,coincideswiththeirproduction,bothwithwhattheyproduceandwithhowtheyproduce.Thenatureofindividualsthusdependsonthematerialconditionsdeterminingtheirproduction.

Thisproductiononlymakesitsappearancewiththeincreaseofpopulation.Initsturnthispresupposestheintercourse[Verkehr]ofindividualswithoneanother.Theformofthisintercourseisagaindeterminedbyproduction.

[3.ProductionandIntercourse.

DivisionofLabourandFormsofProperty–Tribal,ancient,feudal]

Therelationsofdifferentnationsamongthemselvesdependupontheextenttowhicheachhasdevelopeditsproductiveforces,thedivisionoflabourandinternalintercourse.Thisstatementisgenerallyrecognised.Butnotonlytherelationofonenationtoothers,butalsothewholeinternalstructureofthe