GREissue素材整理5Word格式.docx

GREissue素材整理5Word格式.docx

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1. 

TheFunctionofArt

Arthasaneffectontheindividualandonaparticularcultureinasociety.Psychologically,artenhanceslifebyaddingbeautytooursurroundings.Itisasourceofpleasureandrelaxationfromthestressesoflife.Socially,artplaysanumberofdifferentrolesbyvirtueofitscapacitytoembodysymbolicsignificancetoitsaudience.

Artfulfilsanumberofimportantsocialfunctions.Itisusedtocommunicatethevariousstatuespeoplehold.Itcanplayaroleinregulatingeconomicactivities.Anditisalmostalwaysameansforexpressingimportantpoliticalandreligiousideasandforteachingprinciplesthatarevaluedinsociety.Theseandothersocialusesofartfunctiontopreservetheestablishedsocialorganizationofeachsociety.

StatusIndicators

Oneofthesocialfunctionsofartisthecommunicationofstatusdifferencesbetweenindividuals.Forinstance,genderdifferencesinbodydecorationsanddressaretypicalofculturesthroughouttheworld.Agedifferencesmaybesimilarlyindicated.Pubertyritualsoftenincludetattooing,scarificationofthebodyindecorativedesigns,orevenfillingoftheteethtobetweenchildrenandadults.Socialclassdifferencesincomplexsocietiesalsoinvolveaestheticmarkerssuchastheclothingpeoplewearandthekindsofartworkstheyuseasdecorationsoftheirhomes.AccordingtoSahlins,socialandeconomicclass,age,andgenderdifferencesarenoticeableeveninthekindsoffabricspeople’sclothingismadefrom.Forinstance,silksinmostsocietiesarepredominantlywornbywomen,especiallythosewhoarepartoftheupperclassesandthosewhoaremiddle-aged.

EconomicFunctions

Economiclife,byvirtueofitspracticalimportancetooursurvivalandtoourstandardofliving,cansometimesbeasourceofconflictbetweengroupsthatmustcarryoutexchangewithoneanother.Sometimesart,perhapsbecauseitisvaluedforitsnonutilitarianqualities,canplayaroleofmaintainingharmonyinsuchsettings.ThiswasoneofthefunctionsoftheKulaRingexchangeofceremonialnecklacesandarmbandsamongislanderssuchastheTrobriandersandDobuans.

ReligiousFunctions

Muchofthedramaticandemotionalimpactofreligionderivesfromitsuseofart.Religiousritualseverywhereincludesonganddanceperformances,andthevisualartsfunctiontoheightentheemotionalcomponentofreligiousexperienceinallpartsoftheworld,byportrayingimportantscenesandsymbolsfromreligioushistoryandmythology.Insomecultures,artandreligiousritualareinseparable.Forinstance,amongtheAbelamofPapuaNewGuinea,allartisproducedforuseinrituals.

DidacticFunctions

Artisoftenemployedasameansforteachingimportantculturalideasandvalues.Forinstance,hymnsinWesternreligiousexpresstheologicalconceptsandencouragethesupportofspecificreligiousvalues.DanielBiebuyckhasanalyzedtheuseofarttoembodymoralandethicalprinciplesbytheLegapeopleofCentralAfrica.Legaethicalidealsarecodifiedinfigurinesofhumansandanimalsmadeofivory,pottery,bone,wood,andwickerwork.ThefigurinesareusedintheinitiationandtrainingofmenintoprominentpositionswithinLegasociety.Eachofthesestatuesisassociatedwithoneormoreaphorisms,aconcisestatementthatalludestoageneralethicalconcept.Forinstance,onefigureisacarvedstickwhosetopisslitsoastosuggestanopenmouth…Theobjectillustratesthesaying,“Hewhodoesnotputoffhisquarrelsomenesswillquarrelwithsomethingthathasthemouthwidelydistended.”（Inotherritesthisideamayberenderedbyacrocodilefigurinewithwidelydistendedjaws.）Theaphorismalludestothedisastrouseffectsofquarrelsomenessandmeddlesomeness.

Thus,Legafigurineswerenotonlyworksofart;

theywerealsodevicesforteachingimportantmoralprinciplestoeachnewgeneration.Atthesametime,theirownershipbyoldermenwhohadachievedinitiationintothehighestlevelsofsocietyfunctionedtoperpetuaterespectforthemoralwisdomoftheleadersintheestablishedsocialhierarchy.

PoliticalFunctions

Artoftenfunctionstolegitimizetheauthorityofgovernment.MountRushmore,inSouthDakota,memorializesfourAmericanpresidentswhowereselectedfortheirsymbolicassociationwithmessagesaboutvaluesofindividualismanddemocracy.ThestatueMotherRussiacommemoratestheenduringwilltosurviveoftheRussianpeople.TheBritishCrownJewels,byvirtueoftheirartistryandthesymbolismofpreciousstonesthatoriginatedthroughouttheCommonwealth,celebratethevalueoftheinstitutionofthemonarchy.AndtheornatelycarvedGoldenStooloftheAshantiofsouthernGhana,withthedistinctivemythofitssupernaturalorigins,reinforcesthelegitimacyoftheAshantikingandtheunityandstabilityofAshantisociety.

Asastatementaboutthelegitimacyofgovernmentalauthority,artisaconservativeforceinsociety.Inthisrole,itisintendedtoelicitloyaltyandtostabilizesocietyanditspoliticalsystem.Governmentsalsosometimesdeliberatelyemploythisaspectofartaspropagandaurgingpublicactionthatsupportsofficialpolicy.Thus,propagandisticartembodiesbothdidacticandpoliticalfunctions.

2. 

InterculturalPrejudices

Whenculturemeet,peoplemayhavelittleunderstandingorappreciationofgroupswhoseideologiesandadaptivestrategiesdifferfromtheirown.Peoplegrowupunderthenurturanceoftheirgroupandlearntofulfilltheirneedsbylivingaccordingtotheirgroup’sculture.Aspeoplelearntheirwayoflife,theygenerallyidentifythemselvesasmembersofthegroupthathascaredfortheirearlyneedsandhastaughtthemtherulesforliving.Simultaneously,theygenerallydeveloppositivefeelingstowardthisreferencegroupanditsbehaviors.Often,thetrainingofchildreninthewaysofthegroupiscommunicatedexpresslybycontrastingthemwiththesupposedbehaviorsofoutsiders:

“Otherparentsmaylettheirchildrencometothetablelikethat,butinourfamilywewashourhandsbeforeeating!

”suchexpressionsteachchildrenthepatternsofbehaviorexpectedofgroupmembers,buttheyalsocommunicateadisapprovalofoutsiders.

Incomplexsocietieswithlargepopulationsandmanycompetinggroups,prejudicesbetweengroupswithinthesocietymaybecomeacommonelementofdailyexperience,varyingfromgood-naturedrivalrytodirectantipathies.IntheUnitedStates,wemaythinkofourownstateas“God’sowncountry,”ourpoliticsastheonlyrationalwayofdoingthings,orourreligionastheonlyroadtosalvation.Evensuchgroupsymbolsashairlengthandstyleofclothinghaveservedasgroundsforsuspensionfromschool,unifiedthoseinpublicdemonstrations,andcausedinterpersonalviolence.

Theattitudethatone’sowncultureisthenaturallysuperiorone,thestandardbywhichallotherculturesshouldbejudged,andthatculturesdifferentfromone’sownareinferiorissuchacommonwayofreactingtoothers’customsthatitisgivenaspecialnamebyanthropologists.Ethnocentrism,centeredinone’sethnos,theGreekwordforapeopleoranation,isfoundineveryculture.Peopleallowtheirjudgmentsabouthumannatureandabouttherelativemeritsofdifferentwaysoflifetobeguidedbyideasandvaluesthatarecenterednarrowlyonthewayoflifeoftheirownsociety.

Ethnocentrismservesasocietybycreatinggreaterfeelingsofgroupunity.Whenindividualsspeakethnocentrically,theyaffirmtheirloyaltytotheidealsoftheirsocietyandelicitinotherpersonsofthegroupsharedfeelingsofsuperiorityabouttheirsocialbody.Thisenhancestheirsenseofidentityasmembersofthesamesocietyandasbearersofacommonculture.Asharedsenseofgroupsuperiority—especiallyduringitsovertcommunicationbetweengroupmembers—canhelpthemoverlookinternaldifferencesandpreventconflictsthatcouldotherwisedecreasetheabilityofthegrouptoundertakeeffectivelycoordinatedaction.

Formostofhumanhistory,societieshavebeensmallerthanthenationsoftoday,andmostpeoplehaveinteractedonlywithmembersoftheirownsociety.Undersuchcircumstances,theroleofethnocentrisminhelpingasocietytosurvivebymotivatingitsmemberstosupportoneanotherintheircommongoalshasprobablyoutweigheditsnegativeaspects.However,ethnocentrismdefinitelyhasadarkerside.Itisadirectbarriertounderstandingamongpeoplesofdiversecustomsandvalues.Itenhancesenmitybetweensocietiesandcanbeamotivationforconflictamongpeopleswhoselivesareguidedbydifferentcultures.

Ethnocentrismstandsinfundamentalconflictwiththegoalsofanthropology:

therecognitionofthecommonhumanityofallhumanbeingsandtheunderstandingofthecausesofculturaldifferences.Tomanystudents,muchoftheappealofthefieldofanthropologyhasbeenitsintriguingdiscussionsoftheunendingvarietyofcustomsgrownoutofwhat,fromtheviewpointoftheuninitiated,mayseemlikestrangeandexotic,unexpected,andevenstartlinglydifferentvalues.Apeople’svaluesgenerallymakeperfectlygoodsensewhenseenandexplainedinthecontextoftheirculturalsystemasawhole.Yet,itisoftendifficulttomakesenseoutofanotherculturaltraditionbecauseitssymbolicmeaningsmaybesodifferentfromone’sown.Whilenegativereactionstothecustomsofanothersocietymay,therefore,beexpected,theyshouldbeguardedagainstbythestudentofanthropology.

3. 

CultureShock

Anthropologistswhoengageinfieldworkinaculturethatdiffersfromtheoneinwhichtheygrewupoftenexperienceaperiodofdisorientationorevendepressionknownascultureshockbeforetheybecomeacclimatiz