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feminism
Topics
Feminismisbothanintellectualcommitmentandapoliticalmovementthatseeksjusticeforwomenandtheendofsexisminallforms.However,therearemanydifferentkindsoffeminism.Feministsdisagreeaboutwhatsexismconsistsin,andwhatexactlyoughttobedoneaboutit;theydisagreeaboutwhatitmeanstobeawomanoramanandwhatsocialandpoliticalimplicationsgenderhasorshouldhave.Nonetheless,motivatedbythequestforsocialjustice,feministinquiryprovidesawiderangeofperspectivesonsocial,cultural,economic,andpoliticalphenomena.Importanttopicsforfeministtheoryandpoliticsinclude:
thebody,classandwork,disability,thefamily,globalization,humanrights,popularculture,raceandracism,reproduction,science,theself,sexwork,humantrafficking,andsexuality.Extendeddiscussionofthesetopicsisincludedinthesub-entriestofeminisminthisencyc
1.Introduction
Feminismbringsmanythingstophilosophyincludingnotonlyavarietyofparticularmoralandpoliticalclaims,butwaysofaskingandansweringquestions,constructiveandcriticaldialoguewithmainstreamphilosophicalviewsandmethods,andnewtopicsofinquiry.Feministphilosophersworkwithinallthemajortraditionsofphilosophicalscholarshipincludinganalyticphilosophy,AmericanPragmatistphilosophy,andContinentialphilosophy.EntriesinthisEncyclopediaappearingundertheheading“feminism,approaches”discusstheimpactofthesetraditionsonfeministscholarshipandexaminethepossibilityanddesirabilityofworkthatmakeslinksbetweentwotraditions.Feministcontributionstoandinterventionsinmainstreamphilosophicaldebatesarecoveredinentriesinthisencyclopediaunder“feminism,interventions”.Entriescoveredundertherubric“feminism,topics”concernphilosophicalissuesthatariseasfeministsarticulateaccountsofsexism,critiquesexistsocialandculturalpractices,anddevelopalternativevisionsofajustworld.Inshort,theyarephilosophicaltopicsthatarisewithinfeminism.
Althoughtherearemanydifferentandsometimesconflictingapproachestofeministphilosophy,itisinstructivetobeginbyaskingwhat,ifanything,feministsasagrouparecommittedto.Consideringsomeofthecontroversiesoverwhatfeminismisprovidesaspringboardforseeinghowfeministcommitmentsgenerateahostofphilosophicaltopics,especiallyasthosecommitmentsconfronttheworldasweknowit.
2.WhatisFeminism?
2.1FeministBeliefsandFeministMovements
Theterm‘feminism’hasmanydifferentusesanditsmeaningsareoftencontested.Forexample,somewritersusetheterm‘feminism’torefertoahistoricallyspecificpoliticalmovementintheUSandEurope;otherwritersuseittorefertothebeliefthatthereareinjusticesagainstwomen,thoughthereisnoconsensusontheexactlistoftheseinjustices.Althoughtheterm“feminism”hasahistoryinEnglishlinkedwithwomen'sactivismfromthelate19thcenturytothepresent,itisusefultodistinguishfeministideasorbeliefsfromfeministpoliticalmovements,foreveninperiodswheretherehasbeennosignificantpoliticalactivismaroundwomen'ssubordination,individualshavebeenconcernedwithandtheorizedaboutjusticeforwomen.So,forexample,itmakessensetoaskwhetherPlatowasafeminist,givenhisviewthatwomenshouldbetrainedtorule(Republic,BookV),eventhoughhewasanexceptioninhishistoricalcontext.(Seee.g.,Tuana1994.)
Ourgoalhereisnottosurveythehistoryoffeminism—asasetofideasorasaseriesofpoliticalmovements—butratheristosketchsomeofthecentralusesofthetermthataremostrelevanttothoseinterestedincontemporaryfeministphilosophy.Thereferencesweprovidebelowareonlyasmallsampleoftheworkavailableonthetopicsinquestion;morecompletebibliographiesareavailableatthespecifictopicalentriesandalsoattheendofthisentry.
Inthemid-1800stheterm‘feminism’wasusedtoreferto“thequalitiesoffemales”,anditwasnotuntilaftertheFirstInternationalWomen'sConferenceinParisin1892thattheterm,followingtheFrenchtermféministe,wasusedregularlyinEnglishforabeliefinandadvocacyofequalrightsforwomenbasedontheideaoftheequalityofthesexes.Althoughtheterm“feminism”inEnglishisrootedinthemobilizationforwomansuffrageinEuropeandtheUSduringthelate19thandearly20thcentury,ofcourseeffortstoobtainjusticeforwomendidnotbeginorendwiththisperiodofactivism.[1]Sosomehavefounditusefultothinkofthewomen'smovementintheUSasoccurringin“waves”.Onthewavemodel,thestruggletoachievebasicpoliticalrightsduringtheperiodfromthemid-19thcenturyuntilthepassageoftheNineteenthAmendmentin1920countsas“FirstWave”feminism.Feminismwanedbetweenthetwoworldwars,tobe“revived”inthelate1960'sandearly1970'sas“SecondWave”feminism.Inthissecondwave,feministspushedbeyondtheearlyquestforpoliticalrightstofightforgreaterequalityacrosstheboard,e.g.,ineducation,theworkplace,andathome.Morerecenttransformationsoffeminismhaveresultedina“ThirdWave”.ThirdWavefeministsoftencritiqueSecondWavefeminismforitslackofattentiontothedifferencesamongwomenduetorace,ethnicity,class,nationality,religion(seeSection2.3below;alsoBreines2002;Spring2002),andemphasize“identity”asasiteofgenderstruggle.(Formoreinformationonthe“wave”modelandeachofthe“waves”,seeOtherInternetResources.)
However,somefeministscholarsobjecttoidentifyingfeminismwiththeseparticularmomentsofpoliticalactivism,onthegroundsthatdoingsoeclipsesthefactthattherehasbeenresistancetomaledominationthatshouldbeconsidered“feminist”throughouthistoryandacrosscultures:
i.e.,feminismisnotconfinedtoafew(White)womenintheWestoverthepastcenturyorso.Moreover,evenconsideringonlyrelativelyrecenteffortstoresistmaledominationinEuropeandtheUS,theemphasison“First”and“Second”Wavefeminismignorestheongoingresistancetomaledominationbetweenthe1920'sand1960'sandtheresistanceoutsidemainstreampolitics,particularlybywomenofcolorandworkingclasswomen(Cott1987).
Onestrategyforsolvingtheseproblemswouldbetoidentifyfeminismintermsofasetofideasorbeliefsratherthanparticipationinanyparticularpoliticalmovement.Aswesawabove,thisalsohastheadvantageofallowingustolocateisolatedfeministswhoseworkwasnotunderstoodorappreciatedduringtheirtime.Buthowshouldwegoaboutidentifyingacoresetoffeministbeliefs?
Somewouldsuggestthatweshouldfocusonthepoliticalideasthatthetermwasapparentlycoinedtocapture,viz.,thecommitmenttowomen'sequalrights.Thisacknowledgesthatcommitmenttoandadvocacyforwomen'srightshasnotbeenconfinedtotheWomen'sLiberationMovementintheWest.Butthistooraisescontroversy,foritframesfeminismwithinabroadlyLiberalapproachtopoliticalandeconomiclife.Althoughmostfeministswouldprobablyagreethatthereissomesenseof“rights”onwhichachievingequalrightsforwomenisanecessaryconditionforfeminismtosucceed,mostwouldalsoarguethatthiswouldnotbesufficient.Thisisbecausewomen'soppressionundermaledominationrarelyifeverconsistssolelyindeprivingwomenofpoliticalandlegal“rights”,butalsoextendsintothestructureofoursocietyandthecontentofourculture,andpermeatesourconsciousness(e.g.,Bartky1990).
Isthereanypoint,then,toaskingwhatfeminismis?
Giventhecontroversiesoverthetermandthepoliticsofcircumscribingtheboundariesofasocialmovement,itissometimestemptingtothinkthatthebestwecandoistoarticulateasetofdisjunctsthatcapturearangeoffeministbeliefs.However,atthesametimeitcanbebothintellectuallyandpoliticallyvaluabletohaveaschematicframeworkthatenablesustomapatleastsomeofourpointsofagreementanddisagreement.We'llbeginherebyconsideringsomeofthebasicelementsoffeminismasapoliticalpositionorsetofbeliefs.Forasurveyofdifferentphilosophicalapproachestofeminism,see“Feminism,approachesto”.
2.2NormativeandDescriptiveComponents
Inmanyofitsforms,feminismseemstoinvolveatleasttwogroupsofclaims,onenormativeandtheotherdescriptive.Thenormativeclaimsconcernhowwomenought(oroughtnot)tobeviewedandtreatedanddrawonabackgroundconceptionofjusticeorbroadmoralposition;thedescriptiveclaimsconcernhowwomenare,asamatteroffact,viewedandtreated,allegingthattheyarenotbeingtreatedinaccordancewiththestandardsofjusticeormoralityinvokedinthenormativeclaims.Togetherthenormativeanddescriptiveclaimsprovidereasonsforworkingtochangethewaythingsare;hence,feminismisnotjustanintellectualbutalsoapoliticalmovement.
So,forexample,aLiberalapproachofthekindalreadymentionedmightdefinefeminism(rathersimplisticallyhere)intermsoftwoclaims:
i.(Normative)Menandwomenareentitledtoequalrightsandrespect.
ii.(Descriptive)Womenarecurrentlydisadvantagedwithrespecttorightsandrespect,comparedwithmen[…insuchandsuchrespectsandduetosuchandsuchconditions…].
Onthisaccount,thatwomenandmenoughttohaveequalrightsandrespectisthenormativeclaim;andthatwomenaredeniedequalrightsandrespectfunctionshereasthedescriptiveclaim.Admittedly,theclaimthatwomenaredisadvantagedwithrespecttorightsandrespectisnota“purelydescriptive”claimsinceitplausiblyinvolvesanevaluativecomponent.However,ourpointhereissimplythatclaimsofthissortconcernwhat