语用学Chapter-6--Relevance-.pptx

语用学Chapter-6--Relevance-.pptx

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ChapterSixRelevanceTheory,I.TheoriginofRelevanceTheory,II.Differentmodelsofcommunication,III.ContextinRT:

acognitiveconstruct,2,IV.Twoprinciplesofrelevance,TypesofcognitiveeffectsCalculatingcognitiveeffectsExplicaturesvs.implicatures,3,I.TheoriginofRelevanceTheory,4,Asoneofthemostinfluentialtheoriesinthefieldofpragmatics,RelevanceTheoryproposedbyDanSperberandDeidreWilsoninthe1980sintheirbookRelevance:

CommunicationandCognition,purportstodescribeandexplainlinguisticcommunicationfromacognitivepointofview.ManylinguiststakeitasthesupplementandamendmentoftheConversationalImplicatureandtheCPproposedbyGrice.,Relevance:

Anassumptionisrelevantinacontextifandonlyifithassomecontextualeffectinthatcontext.（SperberandWilson,1995,122）,5,Extentcondition1:

anassumptionisrelevantinacontexttotheextentthatitscontextualeffectsinthiscontextarelarge.Extentcondition2:

anassumptionisrelevantinacontexttotheextentthattheeffortrequiredtoprocessitinthiscontextissmall.（SperberandWilson,1995,125）,II.Differentmodelsofcommunication,ThecodemodelTheinferentialmodelTheostensive-inferentialmodelInformativeintentionandcommunicativeintention,6,Encoding（speaker）-acousticsignal（informationprocessing&understanding）-Decoding（hearer）FromAristotlethroughtomodernsemiotics,alltheoriesofcommunicationwerebasedonasinglemodel,whichwewillcallthecodemodel.Accordingtothecodemodel,communicationisachievedbyencodinganddecodingmessages.,CodeModel（semioticinformation,literalmeaning）,7,Intentionorevidence（speaker）-inference（sharedknowledgeorcommoncontext）-communicativegoalRecently,severalphilosophers,notablyPaulGriceandDavidlewis,haveproposedaquitedifferentmodel,whichwewillcalltheinferentialmodel.Accordingtotheinferentialmodel,communicationisachievedbyproducingandinterpretingevidence.,InferentialModel（Premise-orientedinformationcommunicativemeaning）,8,Toconveysomeinformation,wecanhavetwochoices:

toprovidedirectevidenceoftheinformationtobeconveyed,ortoprovidedirectevidenceofourintentiontoconveyit.Theinferentialmodeldescribescommunicationintermofintentionsandinferences.e.g.A:

EitherMaryisearlyorBobislate.B:

Bobisneverlate.Maryisearly.,9,Ostensive-Inferentialmodel（明示推理模式）,10,Basedonthecriticismsofthecodemodelandinferentialmodel,SperberandWilsonproposedanewmodelofcommunication-Ostensive-inferentialmodel.从说话人的角度来说，交际是一种明示过程，明示是通过某种使听话人“显映的”（manifest）方式进行编码，把信息意图明白地展现出来。

从听话人的角度来说，交际又是一个推理过程，推理就是根据说话人的明示行为（比如话语），结合语境假设，求得语境效果，获知说话人的交际意图。

Sperber和Wilson进而把明示推理交际定义为：

说话人发出一种刺激信号（明示），使之对交际双方“互相显映”,通过这种刺激信号，说话人（推理）意欲向听话人显映或更加清楚地显映一系列的命题。

Thecommunicatorproducesastimuluswhichmakesitmutuallymanifesttocommunicatorandaudiencethatthecommunicatorintends,bymeansofstimulus,tomakemanifestormoremanifesttotheaudienceasetofassumptions.,11,John:

DidIgetinvitedtotheconference?

Mary:

Yourpaperistoolong.Johnsinference:

1.Ifhisarticleistoolong,hewillnotbeinvited.2.SinceJohnspaperistoolong,hewillnotbeinvited.,12,Ostensioncommunicatestwotypesofintention:

Informativeintention&Communicationintention,Informativeintention:

theintentiontoinform,ortomakemanifestormoremanifesttotheaudienceasetofassumptions.Communicativeintention:

theintentiontohaveonesinformativeintentionrecognized,ortomakeitmutuallymanifesttoaudienceandcommunicatorthatthecommunicatorhasthisinformativeintention.,13,例如：

IhadasorethroatonChristmasEve.Mary说这句话，意欲：

使Peter相信她在圣诞节前夜喉咙疼；使Peter识别她的意图（a）；使Peter对她的意图（a）的识别，至少能部分地解释Peter之所以相信的原因。

Sperber和Wilson把意图（a）称为“信息意图”,把意图（b）称为“交际意图”,交际意图一旦得到满足，交际就成功了。

14,III.ContextinRT:

acognitiveconstruct,15,Cognitivelyspeaking,forthereader,context（inwhichanutteranceisprocessed）isapsychologicalconstruct，asubsetofassumptionsthatthehearerhasretrievedafterhearingtheutterance.Contextisnotgivenorpredetermined,butconstructedmoreorlessconsciously.,RTviewsofcontextasagainstthetraditionalviews,16,Choiceofcontext,17,语境的选择:

选择处理话语最佳语境的过程就是寻求话语最佳关联的过程。

话语理解中的语境不仅包括上文所表达和隐含的信息，还包括即时的情景因素，以及与该旧信息和新信息有关的所有百科知识，这就要求听话人根据即时情景对话语语境进行选择。

例1:

（1）Peter:

Imtired.Mary:

Illmakethemeal.PeterhopesMarywillmakethemeal.Marywillmakethemeal.,例2:

Peter:

Imtired.Mary:

Thedessertisready.Illmakethemaincourse.Amealconsistsofatleastamaincourseandadessert.Marywillmakethemeal.例3：

Peter:

Imtired.Mary:

Thedessertisready.Illmakeanosso-bucco.Anosso-buccoisamaincourse.Marywillmakethemeal.,18,IV.Twoprincipleofrelevance,AccordingtoSperberandWilson,everyaspectofcommunicationandcognitionisgovernedbythesearchforrelevance.Asatheoreticalconcept,relevanceisseenasapropertyofinputs（includingutterances,thoughts,memories,actions,sounds,sights,smells.Andsoon）tocognitiveprocesses.Itisfurtherdefinedintermsofboththecognitiveeffectsanutterancemayyieldinthecontextandtheprocessingeffortsneededorexpandedtoobtainthesecognitiveeffects.,19,Sincetherelevancerequirementappliestocognitionandcommunicationdifferently,therearetwogeneralprinciplesofrelevance.,20,Thecognitiveprinciple,Humancognitiontendstobegearedtothemaximizationofrelevance.Maximalrelevancecanbedefinedasfollows:

themore（stronger）thecognitiveeffects,thegreatertherelevance（giventhesameamountofprocessingeffort）.thelessprocessingeffort,thegreatertherelevance（giventhesamecognitiveeffects）.CognitiveEffectsRelevance=-ProcessingEffort,21,Thecommunicativeprinciple,Everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesapresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.Presumptionofoptimalrelevance:

（a）Thesetofassumptionswhichthecommunicatorintendstomakemanifesttotheaddresseeisrelevantenoughtomakeitworththeaddresseeswhiletoprocesstheostensivestimulus.（b）Theostensivestimulusisthemostrelevantonethecommunicatorcouldhaveusedtocommunicate.,22,Inthe1995,SperberandWilsonrevisethetwoclausesasfollows:

Presumptionofoptimalrelevance:

（a）Theostensivestimulusisrelevanceenoughforittobeworththeaddresseesefforttoprocessit.（b）Theostensivestimulusisthemostrelevantonecompatiblewiththecommunicatorsabilitiesandpreferences.,23,Forexample:

Peter:

Ivegotatemperaturetoday.Inthissentence,thetemperaturemightbehigherthannormalsothatitsworthtakingaboutandtheutteranceusedmaybeconsistentwithPeterswillingnesstostatehisphysicalstateasabitunusual,withoutgoingsofarastoimpressothersasfussy.,24,Differencebetweenthemaximalrelevanceandoptimalrelevance:

Formaximalrelevance,thegreatertherelevance,thebetter（cognitivelyspeaking）;themorethecognitiveeffects,thegreatertherelevance;thelesstheprocessingeffort,thegreatertherelevance.Foroptimalrelevance,theremustbeabalancebetweenthegainofcognitiveeffectsandtheexpenseofprocessingefforts.,25,最大关联与最佳关联的区分是关联理论的一个主要内容。

最大关联就是听话人理解话语时付出尽可能小的努力，去获得最大的语境效果。

最佳关联就是理解话语时付出有效的推理努力之后，获得足够的语境效果。

26,如果某一句话具有最佳关联，它必须首先具有最大关联。

例（a）你生病了。

（b）你患了轻微流感。

（c）你患了轻微流感，2008年奥运会在伦敦举行。

b比a更具关联性，因为它能产生较多的认知效果。

从b更易推导出结论，因为理解c需要进行某些额外信息处理，类似额外信息是多余的且包含错误信息。

b是最大关联也是最佳关联的话语，因为只须付出较少的努力就能获得最大的效果，比a的语境效果更充分；而c中包含了不必要的多余信息，理解时须付不必要的认知努力，因此b具有最佳关联。

27,ConclusionIngeneral,werefertothecommunicativeprincipleofrelevancewheneverrelevancetheoryismentioned.Weshouldalsonoticethatinactuality,notallinstancesofcommunicationarenecessarilyoptimallyrelevant.,28,Theclaimsthatfollowsfromtherelevanceprincipleisthatostensivecommunicatorsgenerallytrytobeoptimallyrelevant.Forpragmatic（实际的，实用的）analysis,wegenerallyassumethattheutterancesinquestioncommunicatethepresumptionofoptimalrelevance,unlessthereisevidencetothecontrary.,29,V.Typesofcognitiveeffects,30,Accordingtothedefinitionofrelevance,acognitiveeffectisacontextualeffectoccurringinacognitivesystem,andapositiveeffectisacognitiveeffectthatcontributespositivelytothefulfillmentofcognitivefunctionsorgoals.TherearethreemajortypesofcognitiveeffectsareidentifiedandelucidatedinRelevanceTheory.,A.StrengtheningThenewinformationmayprovidedfurtherevidenceforandthereforestrengthentheoldassumptions.eg.Peter:

DoyoualsothinkMaryisgenerous?

Jack:

Shehasinvitedmetodinnerquiteanumberoftimes.JacksutteranceisrelevantasitprovidesevidencetoPetersexistingassumptionaboutMarysgenerosity.,31,B.ContradictionThenewinformationmayprovidecounter-evidenceforsomeoldassumption,andmayeventuallyleadtotheabandonmentofit.eg.Peter:

DoyoualsothinkMaryisgenerous?

Jack:

Shehasneverinvitedmetodinner.JacksutteranceisrelevantinthatitprovidescontraryevidencetoPetersexistingassumptionaboutMarysgenerosity.,32,C.ContextualimplicationThenewinformationiscombinedwiththeoldinformationtoyieldacontextualimplication-animplicationthatisderivablefromneithertheoldnorthenewinformationalone.eg.Peter:

IsMaryagenerousperson?

Jack:

Shehasinvitedmetodinnerquiteafewtimes.TheinteractionbetweenthenewinformationconveyedJacksutteranceandtheretrievedoldinformation,plusthepresumptionofoptimalrelevance,makestheinferencepossible.,33,Weshouldnoticethatthethreetypesofcognitiveeffectsmaynotbeexhaustiveofallpossibilities.Besides,theinteractionbetweentheoldinformationandthenewinformationisvastlydiverseandthedescriptionofthethreetypesisquitegeneral.,34,VI.Calculatingcognitiveeffects,Relevanceisnotonlyaqualitativenotionbutaquantitativeconcept.Inthesamecontext,differentutterancesasinputsmayvaryinthedegreeofrelevance.Asrational