语言学笔记TheUseofEnglish.docx

语言学笔记TheUseofEnglish.docx

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语言学笔记TheUseofEnglish

TheUseofEnglish

8.1PragmaticApproachtoLanguage

8.1.1Pragmatics（语用学）

Itisthestudyofmeaninginuse.meaningincontext.speakermeaning.contextualmeaning.

Pragmaticsstudiescommunication（utteranceproductionandcomprehension）fromafunctional（i.e.social，cultural，cognitive）perspective.

8.1.2Semantics（语义学）V.SPragmatics

Semanticism：

semanticsincludespragmatics

Pragmaticism：

pragmaticsincludessemantics

Complementarism：

semanticsstudiesmeaningintheabstract；pragmaticsstudiesmeaninginthecontext/use.

8.2DeicticExpressions（批示语）

8.2.1Deixis

Deixis：

（fromGreek）anchoring，pointing（towardthecontext）phenomenon.

Thelinguisticmeansusedinthisfunctionareknownasdeictics，indexicals（orindexical/deicticexpressions）.

Examples：

pronouns，demonstratives，timeandplaceadverbs，andsomegrammaticalcategoriessuchastense.

8.2.2Characteristicsinuse

Theegocentricityofdeixis

Deicticexpressionsareanchoredtospecificpointsinthecommunicativeevent.Theunmarkedpoints，calledthedeicticcenter，aretypicallyassumedtobeasfollows（S.Levinson：

Pragmatics）：

Ilovethisgame!

1）thecentralpersonisthespeaker

2）thecentraltimeisthetimeatwhichthespeakerproducestheutterance

3）thecentralplaceisthespeaker’slocationatutterancetime

4）thediscoursecenteristhepointwhichthespeakeriscurrentlyatintheproductionofhisutterance

5）thesocialcenteristhespeaker’ssocialstatusandrank，towhichthestatusorrankofaddresseesorreferentsisrelative.

8.2.3DeicticVS.Non-deictic

Deictic：

gestural/symbolic

You，you，butnotyou，aredismissed.（gestural）

Whatdidyousay?

（Symbolic）

Non-deictic：

anaphoric/non-anaphoric

Jackisastudent.HecomesfromBritain.

Youcannevertellwhatsextheyarenowadays.

Thereyougoagain./Therewego.

Ididthisandthat.

8.2.4Classificationofdeictic

Persondeixis

Placedeixis

Timedeixis

Socialdeixis

Discoursedeixis

8.3SpeechActTheory

Sayingisacting.（JohnAustin，HowtoDoThingswithWords，1962）

“Speechacts”refertoactionsperformedviautterances.

Speechactsare“thebasicorminimalunitsoflinguisticcommunication”.

8.3.1Constatives（表述句）andperformatives（施为句）

a.Thereisabookonthedesk.

b.IpromiseI’llbetheretensharptomorrow.

hereby-test：

firstpersonsingularsubject，simplepresenttense，indicativemood，activevoice，performativeverbs（withexceptions，though）

8.3.3CollapseofPerformativeHypothesis

a.Notallperformativeutterancesrequireaperformativeverb;

b.Anutterancewithaperformativeverbmaynotbethetypeofactsuggestedbytheverb;

8.3.4felicityconditions（适切条件）

a.Essentialcondition（基本条件）

b.Preparatorycondition（预备条件）

c.Propositionalcontentcondition（命题内容条件）

d.Sinceritycondition（真诚条件）

Felicityconditionsforapromise:

1）Thespeakercandowhatispromised；（基本）

2）Thepromisedacthasnottakenplaceyet；（预备）

3）Theutteranceisaboutafutureact；Thepromisedactistothebenefitofthehearer；Thepromisedactwillbefulfilledbythespeaker;（命题内容）

4）Thespeakermeanswhathesays.（真诚）

etc.

Searle’sclassificationofillocutionaryacts

Representatives/assertives（阐述类）

describe，inform，deny，state，claim，assert，remind，etc.

Directives（指令类）:

request，ask，urge，tell，demand，order，advise，command，beseech，etc.

Commissives（承诺类）:

commit，promise，threaten，pledge，consent，refuse，offer，guarantee，etc.

Expressives（表达类）:

apologize，boast，thank，deplore，welcome，congratulate，greet，etc.

Declarations（宣布类）:

declare，resign，appoint，nominate，bless，christen，name，etc.

8.4Presupposition

8.4.1Presuppositionandentailment

8.4.2Presuppositiontriggers：

linguisticsdevicethatmakeinferencepossible.

9.1CooperationinusingEnglish

9.1.1CooperativePrinciple

Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired，atthestageatwhichitoccurs，bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.

H.P.Grice，LogicandConversation，1975

9.1.2Maximsoftheprinciple

Quality：

Betruthful.

a.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.

b.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.

Quantity：

Beinformative.

a.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired（forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange）

b.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.

Relation：

Berelevant.

Makesurethatwhateveryousayisrelevanttotheconversationathand.

Manner：

Beperspicuous（明晰）.

a.Avoidobscurityofexpression.

b.Avoidambiguity.

c.Bebrief（avoidunnecessaryprolixity）

d.Beorderly.

9.1.3Implicature

Itisakindofextrameaningthatisnotcontainedintheutterance.Whenanyofthemaximsisblatantly（公然地）violatedandthehearerknowsthatitisbeingviolated，aparticularconversationalimplicaturearises.

9.1.4Somepropertiesofconversationalimplicature

A.Itcanbecancelled，eitherbyanexplicitdeclarationthatthespeakerisoptingoutor，implicitly，bytheco-textandcontext.

（cancellability可取消性）

B.Itcanbeinferred（calculability可推导性）

Waystocalculateanimplicature:

a.Theconventionalmeaningofthewordsused，andthereferencesofreferringexpressions;

b.thecooperativeprincipleanditsmaxims;

c.theco-textandcontext;

d.backgroundknowledge;

e.thesuppositionthatallparticipantssupposethatallrelevantitemsfallingunder

（1）-（4）areavailabletothemall.

1SinceIhavegoodreasontobelievethatshehasinformationaboutX’swritingskills，thespeakerhasdeliberatelyfailedtoobserve（flouted）themaxim“Beinformative”

2ButIhavenoreasontobelievethatshehasreallyoptedoutofthecooperativeprinciple.So，sheisonlybeingapparentlyuninformative.

3IfIdrawtheinferencethatXhasn’tgotverygoodwritingskills，thenthespeakerisbeingcooperative.SheknowsthatIamcapableofworkingthisout.

4Therefore，shehasimplied（or“implicated”touseGrice’sterm）thatthestudent’swritingskillsarenotverygood.

C.Itmaybeindeterminate:

inmanycases,thelistofpossibleimplicaturesofanutteranceisopen.（indeterminacy不拟定性）

D.Non-detachability[giventhesameproposition]

9.2PolitenessinusingEnglish

9.2.1Leech’sPolitenessPrinciple

Minimize（otherthingsbeingequal）theexpressionofimpolitebeliefsand

Maximize（otherthingsbeingequal）theexpressionofpolitebeliefs.

9.2.2The6maximsofLeech’sPP

TactMaxim

Minimizecosttoother

Maximizebenefittoother

GenerosityMaxim

Minimizebenefittoself

Maximizecosttoself

ApprobationMaxim

Minimizedispraiseofother

Maximizepraiseofother

Maximofmodesty

Minimizepraiseofself

Maximizedispraiseofself

AgreementMaxim

Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother

Maximizeagreementbetweenselfandother

SympathyMaxim

Minimizeantipathybetweenselfandother

Maximizesympathybetweenselfandother

9.2.3Politenessscale：

Directness

Cost-benefit

9.3FaceconsiderationsinusingEnglish

Face，thepublicself-imagethateverymemberwantstoclaimforhimself，consistingintworelatedaspects:

Negativefaceandpositiveface

AccordingtoBrownandLevinson（1978/1987）

Negativeface：

thebasicclaimtoterritories，personalpreserves，rightstonon-distraction

i.e.tothefreedomofactionandfreedomfromimposition.

Positiveface：

thepositiveconsistentself-imageor‘personality’（cruciallyincludingthedesirethatthisself-imagebeappreciatedandapprovedof）claimedbyinteractants.

9.4Developingpragmaticcompetence

TheVarietiesofEnglish

10.1Interrelationbetweenlanguageandsociety

Indicationsofinterralation/relatednessbetweenlanguageandsociety

Anobviousindicationoftheinter-relationshipbetweenlanguageandsocietyisthefactthatlanguageisnotalwaysusedtoexchangeinformationasisgenerallyassumed，butratheritissometimesusedtofulfilanimportantsocialfunction---tomaintainsocialrelationshipbetweenpeople.

Anotherindicationisthatusersofthesamelanguageinasenseallspeakdifferently.Thekindoflanguageeachofthemchoosestouseisinpart

determinedbyhissocialbackground.Whenwespeakwecannotavoidgivingourlistenerscluesaboutouroriginandourbackground.

Chomsky（cognitiveapproach，idealspeaker）vs.Saussure（socialsemioticapproach）

Anyuseoflanguageissociallymarked/stamped.

Associetychanges，languagewillchange.Languagereflectssociety，asshownbythelexiconof"snow"，"camel".

WhereasEnglish，forexample，hasonlyonewordforsnow（ortwoifweincludesleet），Eskimohasseveral.Thereasonsforthisareobvious.ItisessentialforEskimostobeabletodistinguishefficientlybetweendifferenttypesofsnow.

English，ofcourse，isquiteabletomakethesamedistinctions：

finesnow，drysnow，softsnow，andsoon，butinEskimosthissortofdistinctionislexicalized---madebymeansofindividualwords.

10.1.2Approachestothestudyoftheinterrelation

Macro-sociolinguistics：

abird's-eyeview：

howlanguagefunctionsinsocietyandhowlanguagereflectsthesocialdifferentiations.[sociologyoflanguage]

Micro-sociolinguistics：

aworm's-eyeview：

howlanguagefunctionsinthecommunicationbetweenmembersofthesociety.[sociolinguistics]

Itisanobviousfactthatpeoplewhoclaimtobeusersofthesamelanguagedonotspeakthelanguageinthesamemanner.ForexamplealltheEnglish–speakingpeopledonotspeakthesametypeofEnglish.Andthelanguageusedbythesameindividualvariesascircumstancesvary.

10.2RegionaldialectsofEnglish

10.2.1Languageanddialect

Language：

writingsystem；mayincludeseveraldialects；oftenpoliticallydefined

Dialect：

[traditionallyonlyvariationwithspace，butnowwiththespace，thetemporalfactorandsocialfactors]usu.spoken；oftenpartofalanguage；notdistinctenoughfrom