最新西方经济学重点中英文.docx
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最新西方经济学重点中英文
Represents描述Define定义Demonstrate论证
Topic1A
Opportunitycost机会成本Thehighest-valuedalternativethatwegiveuptogetsomething⇒theopportunitycostoftheactivitychosen.我們为了得到一些東西而放弃的
Explicitcost显性成本isacostthatinvolvesactuallylayingoutmoney.花钱
Implicitcost隐性成本doesnotrequireanoutlayofmoney;itismeasuredbythevalue,indollarterms,ofthebenefitsthatareforgone.非实质性
MarginalBenefit边际收益指如果再多销售一单位的产品将会得到的收益,或目前最后卖出的一单位的产品所得到的收益。
边际收益在实现利润最大化中是一个非常重要的经济量,一般认为当边际收益等于边际成本时企业达到利润最大化
MarginalCost边际成本isthechangeinthe totalcost thatariseswhenthequantityproducedhasanincrementbyunit.指的是每一单位新增生产的产品(或者购买的产品)带来的总成本的增量
•MC>MR⇒anincentivetodolessofthatactivity少刺激消费活动
•MB>MC⇒anincentivetodomoreofthatactivity多刺激消费活动
ProductionPossibilitiesFrontierPPF生产可能性边界isagraphrepresentingproductiontradeoffsofaneconomygivenfixedresources(假设、概念、图、移动)用来表示经济社会在既定资源和技术条件下所能生产的各种商品最大数量的组合,反映了资源稀缺性与选择性的经济学特征
Topic2A
Lawofdemand需求法则Otherthingsremainingthesame,thehigherthepriceofagood/service,thesmalleristhequantitydemanded. 假设其他因素不变,当一物品价格增加,其需求量会下降
Lawofsupply供给法则Otherthingsremainingthesame,thehigherthepriceofagood/service,thegreateristhequantitysupplied.假设其他因素不变,当一件物品的相对价格上升时,其供给量会上升
Equilibrium平衡Itmeansnoshortageorsurplusinthemarket.市场中没有短缺或过剩
平衡点
Factorsthatbringchangesindemand.使需求变化的因素
Income,Climate[水土,气候],Ageofthepeople,Technology,Priceofsubstitutes[替代品],Advertising,Pricesofrelatedgoods,Expectedfutureprices,Expectedfutureincome,Preferences[偏好],Population
Factorsthatbringchangesinsupply.使供给变化的因素。
Climate[水土,气候],Technology,Expectationsofproducers[生产者期望],Expectedfutureprices,Thenumberofsuppliers,Pricesofthefactorsofproduction
Shiftsindemandcurveandshiftsinsupplycurve需求曲线的变动和供给曲线的变动
SubstitutesandComplements替代品和互补品
DiminishingMarginalReturns边际效用递减规律isthedecreaseinthe marginal (incremental)outputofa production processastheamountofasingle factorofproduction isincrementallyincreased,whiletheamountsofallotherfactorsofproductionstayconstant.指在投入生产要素后,每单位生产要素所能提供的产量增加发生递减的现象。
消费者剩余(ConsumerSurplus)是指购买者的支付意愿减去购买者的实际支付量。
Topic2B
PriceElasticityofDemand需求价格弹性measurestheresponsivenessofthequantitydemandedtoachangeinprice.衡量需求的数量随商品的价格的变动而变动的情况。
PriceElasticityofsupply供给价格弹性measurestheresponsivenessofthequantitysuppliedtoachangeinprice.指供给量相对价格变化作出的反应程度。
Elastic,Unitelastic,Inelastic,Perfectlyelastic,Perfectlyinelastic(根据弹性系数、图形判断)
弹性、单位弹性、非弹性,完全具有弹性,完全无弹性(根据弹性系数、图形判断)
需求价格弹性系数=需求量变动的百分比/价格变动的百分比。
设:
Q表示一种商品的需求量;P表示该商品的价格;DQ表示需求量变动值; DP表示价格变动的数值;Ed表示价格弹性系数,则:
Ed=(△Q/Q)/(△P/P)
弹性与价格、收益的关系
※一般降价促销的商品都是需求弹性大于1的,如手机,服装,奢侈品;生活必备品一般是弹性小于1的,如食盐。
生活必需品的需求的价格弹性较小,非必需品的需求的价格弹性较大
恩格尔定律(Engel'slaw) isanobservationin economics statingthatasincomerises,the proportion ofincomespentonfoodfalls,evenif actual expenditureonfoodrise.一个家庭收入越少,家庭收入中(或总支出中)用来购买食物的支出所占的比例就越大。
Topic3
Characteristicsofeachmarketstructures每个市场结构特征
Perfectcompetition(完全竞争):
demandcurve需求曲线、
Short-runDecision短期决策是指企业为有效地组织现在的生产经营活动,合理利润经济资源,以期在不远的将来取得最佳的经济效益而进行的决策
Long-runDecision长期决策
Perfectcompetitivemarket完全自由竞争市场
1买卖众多Manybuyersandsellers.②产品同质Allfirmsellingidenticalproducts.③进出自由Nobarrierstonewfirmsenteringthemarket.④SellersandbuyersarewellinformedaboutpricesPerfectinformation信息完全
2
Monopoly垄断
1Onesupplier②Producesagoodorserviceforwhichtherearenoclosesubstitutes
③Highbarrierstoentry④Firmisapricemaker
MonopolisticCompetition垄断竞争
①Featuresofbothcompetitionandmonopoly②Alargenumberoffirms.③Eachfirmproducesadifferentiatedproduct.④ProductDifferentiation:
Firmscompeteonproductquality,price,marketingandbranding.Monopolisticcompetitivefirmsseektodifferentiatetheirproductsinanyone,oracombination
Oligopoly寡头
①Highbarrierstoentry②Asmallnumberoffirms③Firmsarepricemakers
④Interdependency⑤Temptationtocooperate/collude,toincreasejointprofit.
opportunitycost:
机会成本,需考虑
sunkcost:
沉没成本,不受决策影响的成本,表现为过去已经支付费用或根据过去的决策将来必须支付的费用。
Fixedcost:
固定成本,不随产量变化而变化
Variablecost:
可变成本,随产量增加而增加
※长期中,没有固定成本与可变成本之分
Shut-downpoint停止营业点
ØThefirmisindifferentbetweenproducingandshuttingdowntemporarily.
ØTheoutputandpriceatwhichthefirmjustcoversitsTVC.
ØP=AVCisatitsminimum.
ØMCcurvecutsAVCcurve.
ØItincursalossequaltoTFC.
Monopoly(垄断):
三级价格歧视PriceDiscrimination价格歧视
一级价格歧视:
为每单位产品制定不同的销售价格
二级价格歧视:
垄断厂商根据不同的购买数量确立的价格
三级价格歧视:
厂商对同一产品在不同的市场上对不同的消费群体收取弹性价格。
Sellingdifferentunitsofagoodorservicefordifferentprices.
Oligopoly(寡头):
TheKinkedDemandCurveModel弯折的需求曲线模型
Topic4A
GDP,methodsofmeasuringGDP(Gross Domestic Product)衡量国内生产总值的方法
Nominal(名义)GDPistheproductionofgoodsandservicesvaluedatcurrentprices是用生产物品和劳务的当年价格计算的全部最终产品的市场价值
Real(实际)GDPisa macroeconomic measureofthevalueofeconomic output adjustedforpricechanges 是用从前某一年作为基期的价格计算出来的当年全部最终产品的市场价值
Economicgrowth经济增长istheincreaseinthe marketvalue ofthegoodsandservicesproducedbyan economy overtime
Topic4B
Businesscycle经济周期istheperiodicbutirregularup-and-downmovementinproduction.(概念、画图、解释)
Unemploymentrate失业率isthepercentageofthelabourforcethatisunemployed.
Fourtypesofunemployment四种类型的失业
①Structuralunemployment结构性失业②Frictionalunemployment摩擦性失业
③Cyclicalunemployment周期性失业④Seasonalunemployment季节性失业
Fullemployment充分就业isthatwheneveryonewhowishestoworkatthegoingwage-ratefortheirtypeoflaborisemployed.(Naturalrateofunemployment自然失业率)
Topic5
Inflation通胀isanupwardmovementintheaveragelevelofprices.指一般物价水平在某一时期内,连续性地以相当的幅度上涨的状态,又称为物价上升。
Differencebetweenanticipated(预期)andunanticipated(非预期)inflation:
AnticipatedInflationisinflationthathasbeen,onaverage,correctlyforecast.WhileunanticipatedInflation,isInflationthatcatchespeoplebysurprise.
CPI[ConsumerPriceIndex]消费物价指数measureschangesinthepricelevelofa marketbasket of consumergoods and services purchasedbyhouseholds.是反映与居民生活有关的产品及劳务价格统计出来的物价变动指标,以百分比变化为表达形式。
Demandpullinflation需求拉动通货膨胀isinflationthatresultsfromaninitialincreaseinaggregatedemand.
Costpushinflation成本推动型的通货膨胀isinflationthatresultsfromaninitialincreaseincosts.
Wage-pricespiral工资-价格螺旋是一种工资提高了,商品售价也节节升高的现象。
Topic6
Multiplier乘数andMultipliereffect乘数效应isafactorofproportionalitythatmeasureshowmuchan endogenous variablechangesinresponsetoachangeinsome exogenous variable.
Topic7A
TheoriesofInternationaltrade国际贸易理论
①Theoryofabsoluteadvantage(绝对优势理论):
Acountryhasanabsoluteadvantageoveranotherintheproductionofagoodifitcanproduceitwithfewerresources(lowercosts)thantheothercountry
②Theoryofcomparativeadvantage(比较优势理论):
Acountryhasacomparativeadvantageoveranotherintheproductionofagoodifitcanproduceitataloweropportunitycost(i.e.Ifithastoforgolessofothergoodsinordertoproduceit)
BalanceofPayments(BOP)国际收支平衡表:
CurrentAccount(经常项目):
isoneofthetwocomponentsofits balanceofpayments.
※Mainitems:
Goods,Services,Income,Currenttransfers(经常项目转移支付)
CapitalAccount(资本项目):
isoneoftwoprimarycomponentsofthe balanceofpayments.
※Mainitems:
Capitaltransfers(固定资产所有权的转移)[Government&Other],Acquisition/disposalofnon-produced,non-financialassets(各种无形资产如专利,版权,商标,经销权以及租赁和其他可转让合同的交易。
)
TermsofTrade(贸易条件):
Theratioofexportpricestoimportprices.
进出口比价指数=出口物价指数/进口物价指数
Tradebarriers(贸易壁垒):
①Tariff关税②Subsidies津贴(给本国出口企业)③Quotas配额数量
④Embargoes禁运数量⑤Cartels卡特尔⑥Nontariffbarriers非关税壁垒(技术壁垒、环保)
Argumentsinfavorofrestrictingtrade(限制贸易的争论):
①Infantindustryargument②Toreducerelianceofforeigngoods③Toprevent‘dumping[倾销]’andotherunfairtradepractices④Topreventtheimportationofharmfulgoods⑤Toreducetheinfluenceofatradeonconsumerstastes⑤Totakeaccountofexternalities⑥Topreventtheestablishmentofaforeign-basedmonopoly
Argumentsinfavoroffreetrade(支持自由贸易观点):
a)importanceofinternationaltrade;国际贸易的重要性
ØIncreaseexportsleadtoanincreaseGDP.
ØIncreaseineconomicgrowth.
ØIncreaseinemploymentopportunitiesforlocals.
ØExport-orientedindustrieshavetheopportunitytoenternewmarketsallowingthemto:
growinsize;encouragingspecialisationoftasks;economiesofscale.
b)problemsofprotection保护问题&Argumentsagainsttradeprotection支持反对贸易保护
①Protectionas‘second-best’②Retaliation报复③Bureaucracy官僚主义
④Protectionmayallowfirmstoremaininefficient.效率低下
Topic7B
Exchangerates:
Thevalueofonecurrency’scurrencyintermsofanothercountry’scurrency.
Fixedexchangerate固定汇率(1944,布雷顿森林体系)Acountry’sgovernmentorcentralbanksetsexchangerates
Floatingexchangerate浮动汇率(1976,牙买加体系)Setbytheinteractionoftheforcesofdemandandsupply
(1)Cleanfloat:
nogovernmentintervention清洁浮动
(2)Dirtyfloat:
governmentintervention肮脏浮动
Managedexchangerate管理汇率Basicallysetthedemandandsupply,butwithinterventionbycentralbanktoinfluencetherate.
Demandandsupplyinexchangemarket(需求和供给的外汇市场):
能分别说明以下3个因素对一国货币的需求、供给产生什么影响——对汇率产生何种影响
Interestrate利率Otherthingsremainingthesame,thehighertheexchangerate,thesmalleristhequantityofcurrencydemandedintheexchangemarket.
Exportandimport进出口Otherthingsremainingthesame,theappreciation[升值]ofthecurrencyincreasesthequantityofexport,thedepreciation[贬值]ofthecurrencydecreasesthequantityofimport.
Expectedfutureexchangerate预期未来汇率的变动Otherthingsremainingthesame,thehighertheExpectedfutureexchangerate,thebiggeristhequantityofcurrencydemandedintheexchangemarket.
Usingadiagramexplain