外文翻译储氢的风力涡轮机水塔.docx

外文翻译储氢的风力涡轮机水塔.docx

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外文翻译储氢的风力涡轮机水塔

外文翻译

Hydorgenstorageinwindturbinetowers

InternationalJournalofHydrogenEnergy29（2004）1277–1288RyanKottenstettea,JasonCotrellb;aSummerinternfromSantaClaraUniversity,1235MonroeSt,SantaClara,CA95050,USANationalWindTechnologyCentre,NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory,1614ColeBlvd,Golden,CO80401,USAReceived18November2003;accepted15December2003

Abstract：

Modernutility-scalewindturbinetowersaretypicallyconicalsteelhydrogeninwhatwehavetermedahydrogentower.Thispaperexaminespotentialtechnicalbarrierstothistechnologyandidenti4esaminimumcostdesign.Wediscoveredthathydrogentowershavea“crossoverpressure”atwhichthecriticalmodeoffailurecrossesoverfromfatiguetobursting.Thecrossoverpressureformanyturbinetowersisbetween1.0and1:

5mPa（approximately10–15atm）Thehydrogentowerdesignresultingintheleastexpensivehydrogenstorageusesalloftheavailablevolumeforstorageandisdesignedatitscrossoveranadditional$83,000beyondthecostoftheconventionaltower）andwouldstore940kgofhydrogenat1:

1mPaofpressure.Theresultingincrementalstoragecostof$88/kgisapproximately30%ofthatforconventionalpressurevessels.PublishedbyElsevierLtdonbehalfoftheInternationalAssociationforHydrogenEnergy.

Keywords:

Windturbine;Tower;Hydrogen;Storage;Pressurevessel

1.Introduction

Low-costhydrogenstorageisrecognizedasacornerstoneofarenewables-hydrogeneconomy.Modernutility-scalewindturbinetowersaretypicallyconicalsteelstructuresthat,inadditiontosupportingthenacelle,couldbeusedtostoregaseoushydrogen.Wehavecoinedthephrasehydrogentowertodescribethistechnology.Duringhours,electrolyzerscoulduseenergyfromthewindturbinesorthegridtogeneratehydrogenandstoreitinturbinetowers.Therearemanypotentialusesforthisstoredfuel.Thestoredhydrogencouldlaterbeusedtogenerateelectricityviaafuelcellduringtimesofpeakdemand.Thiscapacityforenergystoragecouldsigni4cantlymitigatethedrawbackstotheAuctuatingnatureofthewindandprovideacostectivemeansofmeetingpeakdemand.Alternatively,thehydrogencouldbeusedforfuelcellvehiclesortransmittedtogaseoushydrogenpipelines.Storinghydrogeninawindturbinetowerappearstohavebeen4rstsuggestedbyLeeJayFingershattheNationalRenewableEnergyLaboratoryAnextensionofthehydrogentowerideaistostorehydrogeninshorewindturbinetowersandposiblyevenfoundations.shorefoundationsareoftenmonopileswhichcouldpotentiallyprovidelargeamountsofstoragewithoutectingthepositioningladder,andpowerelectronics.AsimilarideaforgeneratingandstoringhydrogeninthebaseofaAoatingshorewindturbinewasproposedbyWilliamHeronemusinthe1970sHowever,thisstudyfocusesontheeconomicsanddesignofonshorehydrogentowers.Theobjectivesofthispaperareasfollows:

（1）Identifytheparamountconsiderationsassociatedwithusingawindturbinetowerforhydrogenstorage.

（2）Proposeandanalyzeacostectivedesignforahydrogentower.03603199/$30.00PublishedbyElsevierLtdonbehalfoftheInternationalAssociationforHydrogenEnergy.

（3）Comparethecostofstorageinhydrogentowerstothecostofhydrogendtoragestorageinconwentionalpressurevessels

Therearemanycompetitivemethodsofstoringhydrogensuchasliquidhydrogenstorage,undergroundgeologicstorage,andtransmissionpipelinestorage.However,acomparisonwasmadeonlytoonestoragetechnologytolimitthescopeofthisstudy.Conventionalpressurevesseltech-nologywaschosenbecauseitisthemostwidelyavailableofthetechnologiesandthemethodmostlikelytobeusedforthemoderateamountsofhydrogenstorageconsideredinthisstudy.Thisstudyengagestheseobjectiveswithinthewiderwind-hydrogensystem,Variousbalanceofstationcostssuchastransportation,licensing,andpipingarethereforeoutsidethescopeofthisreport.Thispaperoutlinestheassumptionsmadeduringthisstudy,outlinesprimaryconsiderationsassociatedwithahydrogentower,highlightsdesigncharacteristicsofahydro-gentower,presentsseveralconceptualdesigns,andassessesthefeasibilityoftheconceptbasedoncomparisonstocon-ventionaltowersandpressurevessels

2.Benchmarksandassumptions

2.1.Hydrogengeneration

Thisstudyassumeselectrolyzersgeneratethehydrogentobestoredinthehydrogentowers.Aswilllaterbedemonstrated,themosteconomicalpressuresforstorageinhydrogentowersarebelow1:

5mPa.Thisstudyassumesthatprotonexchangemembrane（PME）andhigh-pressurealkalineelectrolyzerscanproducehtdrogenuptothispressurewithouttheuseofanadditionalcompressor

2.2.Conventionaltowers

Wechosetousethe1.5-MWtowermodelspeci4edintheWindPACTAdvancedWindTurbineDesignsStudyasourbaselineconventionaltowerThistowerwasmodeledafteraconventionaltowerbuiltfromfourtapered,tubular,steelsectionswhichareboltedtogether.Conventionaltowersarebuiltbyweldingtogethercylingenerallydecreaseinstepsasthetowertaperstosmallerdiametersathigherelevations.Forsimplicity,theWindPACTtowermodelinsteadassumesthewallthicknesstapersinasmoothlinearfashion.Themodelassumesaconstanttowerdiameter/wallthickness（d=t）ratioof320.Inordertosavematerialcosts,ahighdtratioisdesirable.However,forratiosabove320,towersbecomesubjecttolocalwallbuck-lingproblems.Additionalassumptionsregardingthetowerarethatthediameteratthetopisconstrainedtobeatleast1=2ofthebasediameter;thesteelusedforthetowerwallshasayieldstrengthof350mPa（about50ksi）;andthecostofthetoweris$1.50/kg[3].Forthepurposesofthisstudy,othercostswereincluded,suchasapersonnelladder（$10/ft）,andatoweraccessdoor（$20004xedcost）.ThemodeledtowerisshowninFig.1withatabulationofcriticalvalueslistedinTable1.

2.3.Conventionalpressurevessels

Industrialpressurevesselsfornoncorrosivegasesareof-tenbuiltofcarbonsteelsimilartothatusedinwindturbinetowerconstruction.Althoughthemosteconomicalpressurevesselgeometryislongandslender,vesselsareoftenlimitedbyshippingconstraintstoapracticallengthofabout25m.Thislengthlimitationmeansthatinordertobetterdistributethehigh4xedcostsassociatedwith4ttingsandmanways,pressurevesselsaredesignedwithrelativelylargediametersandhighpressureratings.Althoughhigherpressuresreducethecostperkgofstoredgas,higherpressuresInthispaper,storagedevicesareoftencomparedbasedonacost/massratio.Thisratioisthecost（indollars）ofastoragedevicedividedbythemassofdeliverablehydrogengasstored.Thecost/massratioisusedbecauseitismoreconvenientthanthecommonpracticeofcitingavolumetriccapacityandapressureratingforeachstoragedevice.Useofthecost/massratiodoes,however,makethegivenvaluesaccurateonlyforhydrogenstorage.Deliverablehydrogenistheamountofhydrogeninthestoragereservoirthatcanbeextractedduringthenormaloperationofthestoragefacility.Inpressurevessels,acertainamountofgasisrequiredtopro-videacushion.Thisisthevolumeofgasthatmustremaininthestoragefacilitytoprovidetherequiredpressurizationtoextracttheremaininggas.Insomescenarios,suchasundergroundstorage,thevolumeofinaccessiblegascanbesigncosttoInthisstudy,theectofthiscushiongasisneglectedwhencomputingthestoregaseoushydrogenbecauseitissmallwhencomparedtootherstorage-relatedcosts.Inaddition,thisstudymodelshydrogenasanidealgas.Thisapproximationissulcientlyaccurateforthelowtemperaturesandpressuresconsideredinthisstudy.

3.Hydrogentowerconsiderations

Hydrogenstoragecreatesanumberofadditionalconsiderationsinwindturbinetowerdesign.Acceleratedat-mosphericcorrosiononthetowerinteriorandhydrogenembrittlementmayadverselyaectthetower’sductility,yieldstrength,andfatiguelife.Additionally,storinghydrogenatpressuresigni4cantlyincreasesthestressesonthetower.Therefore,wallreinforcementwilllikelyberequired.Astructuralanalysisisrequiredtoevaluatehowinternalpressuremaythetower’sdesignlife.

3.1.Corrosion

Bothatmosphericcorrosionandhydrogenembrittlementwillecttheinteriorofahydrogentower.Conventionalwindturbinetowersareprotectedinternallyandexternallyfromatmosphericcorrosionbypaint.Whenatowerisusedtostoreapressurizedgas,however,itbecomessubjecttotheguidelinessetforthintheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers（ASME）BoilerandPressureVesselCode.Thecodestatesthatpaintisnotanadequateformofprotectionfortheinteriorofpressurevessels.Enoughmaterialmustthereforebeaddedtoanticipateatmosphericcorrosion.Fortunately,theinteriorofahydrogentowerisacontrolledenvironment.HydrogenfromaPEMelectrolyzerdoesnotcontaincontaminantsthatcauseatmosphericcorrosion（ofprimaryconcernaresulfurdioxideandchlorine）.

Theproducthydrogen（whichwouldbefullysaturatedwithwatervapor）couldbedriedtobelowthecriticalhumiditylevel（lessthan80%relativehumidity）atminimalcost.Undertheseconditions,atmosphericcorrosionwouldpenetratethesteel’ssurfaceatthenegligiblerateoflessthan0.01mperyear

3.2.Hydrogenattack

OneofthetwoprimarymodesofcorrosionfailurewhensteelisexposedtoahydrogenenvironmentishydrogenattackAlthoughsomesourcesdonotdistinguishhydrogenattackfromhydrogenembrittlement（HE）,othersourcesdistinguishthembytheirdieringresponses