工程造价毕业论文外文文献.docx

工程造价毕业论文外文文献.docx

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工程造价毕业论文外文文献

工程造价毕业设计外文文献及译文

外文文献：

ConstructionStandardsandCosts

UCIrvinenewconstructionpursuesperformancegoalsandappliesqualitystandardsthataffectthecostsofcapitalprojects.Periodicre-examinationofthesegoalsandstandardsiswarranted.

Constructioncostsarenot“high”or“low”intheabstract,butratherinrelationtospecificqualitystandardsandthedesignsolutions,means,andmethodsusedtoattainthesestandards.Thus,evaluatingwhetherconstructioncostsareappropriateinvolves:

•first,determiningwhetherqualitystandardsareexcessive,insufficient,or

appropriate;

•second,determiningwhetherresultantprojectcostsarereasonableparedtoprojectswithessentiallythesamequalityparameters.

“Quality”enpassesthedurabilityofbuildingsystemsandfinishes;therobustnessandlife-cycleperformanceofbuildingsystems;theaestheticsofmaterials,theirposition,andtheirdetailing;andtheresource-sustainabilityandefficiencyofthebuildingasanoverallsystem.

OverallGoalsandQualityStandards

UCIrvine,inordertosupportdistinguishedresearchandacademicprograms,buildsfacilitiesofhighquality.Assuch,UCIrvine’sfacilitiesaimtoconveythe“lookandfeel,”aswellasembodytheinherentconstructionquality,ofthebestfacilitiesofotherUCcampuses,leadingpublicuniversities,andotherresearchinstitutionswithwhomwepeteforfaculty,students,sponsoredresearch,andgeneralreputation.

Since1992,newbuildingshavebeendesignedtoachievethesefivebroadgoals:

1.Newbuildingsmust“createaplace,”ratherthanconstitutestand-alonestructures,formingsocial,aesthetic,contextually-sensitiverelationshipswithneighboringbuildingsandthelargercampus.

2.Newbuildingsreinforceaconsistentdesignframeworkofclassicalcontextualarchitecture,appliedinwaysthatconveyafeelingofpermanenceandqualityandinterpretedinwaysthatmeetthecontemporaryandchangingneedsofamodernresearchuniversity.

3.Newbuildingsemploymaterials,systems,anddesignfeaturesthatwillavoidtheexpenseofmajormaintenance（definedas>1percentofvalue）fortwentyyears.

4.Newbuildingsapply“sustainability”principles--notably,outperformingTitle24（California’senergycode）byatleast20percent.

5.Capitalconstructionprojectsaredesignedanddeliveredwithinthe

approvedprojectbudget,scope,andschedule.

UCIrvine’sgoalsforsustainablematerialsandenergyperformancewereadoptedpartlyforenvironmentalreasons,andpartlytoreversesubstantialoperatingbudgetdeficits.

Thelatterproblemsincludedamulti-milliondollarutilitiesdeficitthatwasgrowingrapidlyintheearly‘90s,andmillionsofdollarsofunfundedmajormaintenancethatwasemergingprematurelyinbuildingsonly10-20yearsold.Withoutthequalityandperformancestandardsadoptedin1992,utilitiesdeficitsandunfundedmajormaintenancecostswouldhaveexceeded$20millionduringthepastdecade,andthesecostswouldstillberisingout-of-control.

UCIrvine’smaterialsstandards,buildingsystemsstandards,sustainabilityandenergyefficiencycriteria,andsiteimprovementsalladdcostincrementsthatcanonlybeaffordedthroughaggressivecostmanagement.Institutionsthatcannotmanagecapitalcoststendtobuildprojectsthatconsumeexcessiveenergy,thatcostalottomaintain,thatsufferprematuremajormaintenancecosts,andthatrequirehighcoststomodify.Suchproblemstendtopoundandspiraldownwardintoincreasinglycostlyconsequences.

Everyadministratorwithfacilitiesexperienceunderstandsthisdynamic.Withouteffectiveconstructioncostmanagement,qualitywouldsufferandUCIrvinewouldexperiencealloftheseproblems.

Thebalanceofthisdocumentoutlinesingreaterdetailthebuildingperformancecriteriaandqualitystandardsgenerallystatedabove,organizedaccordingtobuildingsystemsponentclasses.Eachsectiondiscusseskeycost-drivers,cost-controlstrategies,andimportantcosttrade-offs.Designpracticescitedareconsistentlyapplied（althoughsomefallshortofhardandfast“rules”）.

BuildingOrganizationandMassing

Constructioncostmanagementstartswiththefundamentalsofbuildingorganizationandmassing.UCIrvine’snewstructures’floorplatestendtohavelength-to-widthratios<1.5,toavoidtriggeringdisproportionatecostsofexternalcladding,circulation,andhorizontalmechanicaldistribution.Ournewbuildingstendtobeatleastthreefloors

high--talleriffloorplateareasdonotdipbelowacost-effectivethreshold,andgenerallytallerinthecaseofnon-laboratorybuildings（butnotsotallthatahigh-risecostpenaltyisincurred）.Otherdesignratiosareobserved,suchasexteriorcladdingarea/floorarea<0.5,androof+foundationarea/floorarea<0.4.

Architecturalarticulationisgenerallyachievedthroughtexturedorenrichedmaterials,integralmaterialdetailing（suchasconcreterevealpatterning）,andapplieddetailing（e.g.,2windowframesandsills）,particularlyatthebuildingbase.Large-scalearticulationisconcentratedattheroofline（e.g.,shapedroofforms）andatthepedestrianlevel（e.g.,arcades）,whereitwill“createthebiggestbangforthebuck,”ratherthanthroughmodulatingthebuildingform,itself.Thisismorethanasubtledesignphilosophy,asthecostimpactissubstantial.

Labbuildingspletedinthepastdecadeseparatelaboratoryandnon-laboratoryfunctionsintodistinct,adjoinedstructures（althoughsuchabuildingmaylooklikeonestructure）.Consolidatednon-laboratoryfunctionsincludefaculty,departmental,staff,post-doc,andgraduatestudentoffices;restrooms;circulation（elevators,lobbies,primarystairways）;classrooms,seminarrooms,conferencerooms,andsocialareasdesignedto

fosterinteractionandtoprovideasafeareaforeatinganddrinking;drylabsanddrylabsupportfunctions;andgeneraladministrativesupport.

Consolidatingthesefunctionsintoaseparatestructureprovidesconsiderablecostsavings:

lower-costHVAC（heating/ventilation/air-conditioning）system,widercolumnspacing,lowerfloorstiffness（lessstringentvibrationcriterion）,lowerfloor-loading,fewerfire-controlfeaturesandothercoderequirements,steel-framedorsteel/concretehybridstructuralsystemwithconcreteflat-slabflooringsystem,smallerfootings,and（typically）curtainwallfenestration.Thisapproachusuallyenablesofficestohaveoperablewindows.

Thistwo-buildingapproachcanbeseenclearlyatGillespieNeurosciencesBuilding,theSpragueBuilding,HewittHall,andtheUCIMedicalCenterHealthSciencesLaboratory,whereconsolidatingandseparatingnon-laboratoryfunctionssaved7-10percentinoverallconstructioncostsand15percent/yearinenergyexpense.（Thenon-laboratorybuildingincursasmallfractionoftheenergyexpenseofthelaboratoryblock.）

Asetofdesignstrategies,appliedinbination,hasproveneffectiveincontrollingthecostoflaboratories:

•Utilizingaconsistentlabmodule

•Utilizingareasonablevibrationcriterionandlocatingultra-sensitiveconditionsat-gradeoremployingbenchtopvibrationisolation

•Using22ft.X22ft.column-spacing

•Concentratingfumehoodsandutilityrisersintoacentral“wetzone,”thus

limitinghorizontalmechanicaldistribution

•Concentratinglaboratorysupportareasintothecentralcoreofalaboratory

structure,whereutilitiesareavailablebutdaylightisnotneeded,thusenabling

labstructurestobe110-132feetwide

•Utilizingdual-usagecirculation/equipmentcross-corridorsthroughthiscentrallabsupportzone,withsufficientwidth（typically11feet）tolinethecorridorswithsharedequipmentwhileprovidingcross-circulationthroughthelabsupportzone

•Utilizingopenlaboratorylayoutwithoneormore“ghost”corridorsforintralabcirculation

•And,mostimportantly,concentratingnon-laboratoryfunctionsintoanadjoining,lower-coststructure（asdiscussedindetailabove）.

Tofurthercontrollaboratoryconstructioncosts,non-standardfumehoodsizesareminimized,“generic”labcaseworkisspecified,laboratory-grademovabletablessubstituteforfixedcaseworkinsomelabbays,buildingDIsystemsprovideintermediatewaterquality（withlocalizedwaterpuritypolishinginthelab,ratherthanbuilding-wide）,facility-widepipedservicesdonotincludegasesthatcanbecost-effectivelyprovidedlocallyviacanisters,andglass-washfacilitiesareconsolidated--typically,oneglasswashfacilityforanentirelaboratorybuilding.

Finally,ourdesignphilosophyleanstowardgeneric,modularlaboratoriessupportedbyarobustbuildinginfrastructure,ratherthanhighlycustomizedspaceswithlimitedcapacitytomakelaterchanges.Thisisanimportanttradeoff.Althoughsomepost-occupancyexpensesmaybenecessaryto“fine-tune”alaboratorytoaPI’srequirements,buildinginfrastructureelements–typicallyoversizedtwentypercent,includingHVACsupplyducts,exhaustsystemcapacity,emergencygeneratorcapacity,andelectricrisersandservicecapacity–seldomlimittheabilitytomodifylabstomeetresearcherneeds.

StructuralandFoundationSystems

Forbothcost-benefitreasonsandpastseismicperformance,UCIrvinefavorsconcreteshearwallorsteelbraced-framestructuralsystems.Thecorrelatingfoundationsystemsdependonsite-specificsoilconditions.Pastproblemswithundiscoveredsubstratesanduncharacterizedsoilconditionsareminimizedthroughextensive,pre-designsoil-testing.ThisminimizesrisktoboththeUniversityandthedesign/buildcontractor.

Whenfeasible,design/buildcontractorsareallowedflexibilitytoproposealternatestructuralorseismic-forcesystems.Allstructuralsystemdesignsmustpassapeerreview,accor