globalization.docx

globalization.docx

《globalization.docx》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《globalization.docx（28页珍藏版）》请在冰点文库上搜索。

globalization

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Jumpto:

navigation,search

Theneutralityofthisarticleisdisputed.Pleaseseethediscussiononthetalkpage.Pleasedonotremovethismessageuntilthedisputeisresolved.（November2010）

Globalization（orglobalisation）describestheprocessbywhichregionaleconomies,societies,andcultureshavebecomeintegratedthroughaglobalnetworkofpoliticalideasthroughcommunication,transportation,andtrade.Thetermismostcloselyassociatedwiththetermeconomicglobalization:

theintegrationofnationaleconomiesintotheinternationaleconomythroughtrade,foreigndirectinvestment,capitalflows,migration,thespreadoftechnology,andmilitarypresence.[1]However,globalizationisusuallyrecognizedasbeingdrivenbyacombinationofeconomic,technological,sociocultural,political,andbiologicalfactors.[2]Thetermcanalsorefertothetransnationalcirculationofideas,languages,orpopularculturethroughacculturation.Anaspectoftheworldwhichhasgonethroughtheprocesscanbesaidtobeglobalized.

Contents

[hide]

1Definitions

2Effects

2.1Culturaleffects

2.2Negativeeffects

2.2.1Sweatshops

2.2.2Negativeeffectsofeconomicliberalization

2.2.3Braindrain

2.2.4Environmentaldegradation

2.2.5Foodsecurity

2.2.6Disease

2.2.7Drugandillicitgoodstrade

3Advocates

4Critics

5History

5.1Post-WorldWarII

6Measurement

6.1Internationalsocialfora

7Seealso

8References

9Furtherreading

10Externallinks

10.1Multimedia

[edit]Definitions

AccordingtotheOxfordEnglishDictionary,theword'globalization'wasfirstemployedinapublicationentitledTowardsNewEducationin1930,todenoteaholisticviewofhumanexperienceineducation.[3]AnearlydescriptionofglobalizationwaspennedbytheAmericanentrepreneur-turned-ministerCharlesTazeRussellwhocoinedtheterm'corporategiants'in1897,[4]althoughitwasnotuntilthe1960sthatthetermbegantobewidelyusedbyeconomistsandothersocialscientists.Thetermhassincethenachievedwidespreaduseinthemainstreampressbythelaterhalfofthe1980s.Sinceitsinception,theconceptofglobalizationhasinspirednumerouscompetingdefinitionsandinterpretations,withantecedentsdatingbacktothegreatmovementsoftradeandempireacrossAsiaandtheIndianOceanfromthe15thcenturyonwards.[5]

TheUnitedNationsESCWAsaysglobalization"isawidely-usedtermthatcanbedefinedinanumberofdifferentways.Whenusedinaneconomiccontext,itreferstothereductionandremovalofbarriersbetweennationalbordersinordertofacilitatetheflowofgoods,capital,servicesandlabor...althoughconsiderablebarriersremaintotheflowoflabor...Globalizationisnotanewphenomenon.Itbegantowardstheendofthenineteenthcentury,butitsloweddownduringtheperiodfromthestartoftheFirstWorldWaruntilthethirdquarterofthetwentiethcentury.Thisslowdowncanbeattributedtotheinward-lookingpoliciespursuedbyanumberofcountriesinordertoprotecttheirrespectiveindustries...however,thepaceofglobalizationpickeduprapidlyduringthefourthquarterofthetwentiethcentury..."[6]

HSBC,theworld'slargestbank,operatesacrosstheglobe.[7][8]ShownhereistheHSBCGlobalTechnologyCentreinPune,IndiawhichdevelopssoftwarefortheentireHSBCgroup.[9]

TomJ.PalmeroftheCatoInstitutedefinesglobalizationas"thediminutionoreliminationofstate-enforcedrestrictionsonexchangesacrossbordersandtheincreasinglyintegratedandcomplexglobalsystemofproductionandexchangethathasemergedasaresult."[10]

ThomasL.Friedmanhasexaminedtheimpactofthe"flattening"oftheworld,andarguesthatglobalizedtrade,outsourcing,supply-chaining,andpoliticalforceshavechangedtheworldpermanently,forbothbetterandworse.Healsoarguesthatthepaceofglobalizationisquickeningandwillcontinuetohaveagrowingimpactonbusinessorganizationandpractice.[11]

HermanE.Dalyarguesthatsometimesthetermsinternationalizationandglobalizationareusedinterchangeablybutthereisasignificantformaldifference.Theterm"internationalization"（orinternationalisation）referstotheimportanceofinternationaltrade,relations,treatiesetc.owingtothe（hypothetical）immobilityoflaborandcapitalbetweenoramongnations.[citationneeded]

Finally,TakisFotopoulosarguesthatglobalizationistheresultofsystemictrendsmanifestingthemarketeconomy'sgrow-or-diedynamic,followingtherapidexpansionoftransnationalcorporations.Becausethesetrendshavenotbeenoffseteffectivelybycounter-tendenciesthatcouldhaveemanatedfromtrade-unionactionandotherformsofpoliticalactivity,theoutcomehasbeenglobalization.Thisisamulti-facetedandirreversiblephenomenonwithinthesystemofthemarketeconomyanditisexpressedas:

economicglobalization,namely,theopeningandderegulationofcommodity,capitalandlabourmarketswhichledtothepresentformofneoliberalglobalization;politicalglobalization,i.e.,theemergenceofatransnationaleliteandthephasingoutoftheallpowerfulnation-stateofthestatistperiod;culturalglobalization,i.e.,theworldwidehomogenisationofculture;ideologicalglobalization;technologicalglobalization;socialglobalization.[12]

[edit]Effects

Globalizationhasvariousaspectswhichaffecttheworldinseveraldifferentways

Industrial-emergenceofworldwideproductionmarketsandbroaderaccesstoarangeofforeignproductsforconsumersandcompanies.Particularlymovementofmaterialandgoodsbetweenandwithinnationalboundaries.Internationaltradeinmanufacturedgoodsincreasedmorethan100times（from$95billionto$12trillion）inthe50yearssince1955.[13]China'stradewithAfricarosesevenfoldduring2000-07alone.[14][15]

Financial-emergenceofworldwidefinancialmarketsandbetteraccesstoexternalfinancingforborrowers.Bytheearlypartofthe21stcenturymorethan$1.5trillioninnationalcurrenciesweretradeddailytosupporttheexpandedlevelsoftradeandinvestment.[16]Astheseworldwidestructuresgrewmorequicklythananytransnationalregulatoryregime,theinstabilityoftheglobalfinancialinfrastructuredramaticallyincreased,asevidencedbytheFinancialcrisisof2007–2010.[17]

Asof2005–2007,thePortofShanghaiholdsthetitleastheWorld'sbusiestport.[18][19][20]

Economic-realizationofaglobalcommonmarket,basedonthefreedomofexchangeofgoodsandcapital.[21]Theinterconnectednessofthesemarkets,however,meantthataneconomiccollapseinoneareacouldimpactotherareas.[citationneeded]Withglobalization,companiescanproducegoodsandservicesinthelowestcostlocation.Thismaycausejobstobemovedtolocationsthathavethelowestwages,leastworkerprotectionandlowesthealthbenefits.ForIndustrialactivitiesthismaycauseproductiontomovetoareaswiththeleastpollutionregulationsorworkersafetyregulations.

AlmostallnotableworldwideITcompanieshaveapresenceinIndia.FourIndianswereamongtheworld'stop10richestin2008,worthacombined$160billion.[22]In2007,Chinahad415,000millionairesandIndia123,000.[23]

HealthPolicy-Ontheglobalscale,healthbecomesacommodity.IndevelopingnationsunderthedemandsofStructuralAdjustmentPrograms,healthsystemsarefragmentedandprivatized.Globalhealthpolicymakershaveshiftedduringthe1990sfromUnitedNationsplayerstofinancialinstitutions.Theresultofthispowertransitionisanincreaseinprivatizationinthehealthsector.Thisprivatizationfragmentshealthpolicybycrowdingitwithmanyplayerswithmanyprivateinterests.Thesefragmentedpolicyplayersemphasizepartnershipsandspecificinterventionstocombatspecificproblems（asopposedtocomprehensivehealthstrategies）.Influencedbyglobaltradeandglobaleconomy,healthpolicyisdirectedbytechnologicaladvancesandinnovativemedicaltrade.Globalpriorities,inthissituation,aresometimesatoddswithnationalprioritieswhereincreasedhealthinfrastructureandbasicprimarycareareofmorevaluetothepublicthanprivatizedcareforthewealthy.[24]

Political-someuse"globalization"tomeanthecreationofaworldgovernmentwhichregulatestherelationshipsamonggovernmentsandguaranteestherightsarisingfromsocialandeconomicglobalization.[25]Politically,theUnitedStateshasenjoyedapositionofpoweramongtheworldpowers,inpartbecauseofitsstrongandwealthyeconomy.WiththeinfluenceofglobalizationandwiththehelpofTheUnitedStates’owneconomy,thePeople'sRepublicofChinahasexperiencedsometremendousgrowthwithinthepastdecade.IfChinacontinuestogrowattherateprojectedbythetrends,thenitisverylikelythatinthenexttwentyyears,therewillbeamajorreallocationofpoweramongtheworldleaders.Chinawillhaveenoughwealth,industry,andtechnologytorivaltheUnitedStatesforthepositionofleadingworldpower.[26]

Amongthepoliticaleffectssomescholarsalsonamethetransformationofsovereignty.Intheiropinion,'globalizationcontributestothechangeandreductionofnomenclatureandscopeofstatesovereignpowers,andbesidesitisabilateralprocess:

ontheonehand,thefactorsarestrengtheningthatfairlyunderminethecountries'sovereignty,ontheother–moststatesvoluntarilyanddeliberatelylimitthescopeoftheirsovereignty'.[27]

Informational-increaseininformationflowsbetweengeographicallyremotelocations.Arguablythisisatechnologicalchangewiththeadventoffibreopticcommunications,satellites,andincreasedavailabilityoftelephoneandInt