社会语言学-7--Variation-Studies.ppt

社会语言学-7--Variation-Studies.ppt

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Chapter7：

VariationStudiesAnEarlyStudy:

Fischer（1958）:

（ng）:

np159Thechoicebetweentheingandtheinvariantsappearstoberelatedtosex,class,personality（aggressive/cooperative）,andmood（tense/relaxed）ofthespeaker,totheformalityoftheconversationandtothespecificverbspoken.NewYorkCity:

Labov（1966）:

incidenceofrusepp161-165Membersofthehighestandlowestsocialgroupstendnottochangetheirpronunciationafteritbecomesfixedinadolescencebutmembersofmiddlesocialgroupssometimesdobecauseoftheirsocialaspirations.Therpronouncedassociatedwiththeuppermiddleclasseventhoughmembersofthatclassdonotalwaysusesuchpronunciations,nordotheyusethemonalloccasions.,Subjectivereactiontestspp162-163NewYorkersintheuppermiddleclassandundertheageof40almostunanimouslyapprovedr-pronunciationeventhoughfewerthanhalfactuallyusedrinallpossibleinstances.Peoplebelowtheageof20alsousedmorer-pronunciationthanpeoplebetweentheagesof20and40,afactthatwouldsuggestr-pronunciationtobeontheincrease.Abovetheageof40,approvalfellofftoabout60percentanduseshowedadramaticdeclinetolessthan10percent.Thelowermiddleclassspeakersnotonlyapproveofr-pronunciation,theyalsotendedtoexceedwhatappeartobethenormsforitsuseinthenexthighestclassinreadingwordlistsandinpronouncingminimalpairsofwords.Theamountofruseincreasesbysocialclassandbyformalityofstyle.Thelowermiddleclassspeakersout-performhisuppermiddleclassspeakersonwordlistsandpairs:

aninstanceofhypercorrection.Lowermiddleclassspeakersknowhowprestigiousr-pronunciationareand,whentheyareplacedinsituationswhichrequirethemtomonitortheirspeechclosely,theyout-performtheirreferencegroup,theuppermiddleclass.,NorwichandReadingTrugill（1974）p167Trugillsanalysisofthevariable（ng）,（t）and（h）showsthatthehigherthesocialclassthemorefrequentistheuseof,tandhvariantsinwordslikesinging,butterandhammerratherthanthecorrespondingn,?

andvariants.Itsuseisrelatednotonlytosocialclassbutalsotosex,withfemalesshowingagreaterpreferenceforthanmales,regardlessofsocialclassmembership.Cheshire（1978）p168Cheshire,（s）3rdpersonsingularverbmarking,constraintsonusage:

averbstemalwaysstakestheswhenitisusedinthethirdpersonsingular,thesendingisfavoredinallpersonswhentheverbisavernacularverb（commonlyusedverbs）,butthesisnotusedatalliftheverbhasacomplementinwhichtheverbinthecomplementismarkedfortense.Highfrequenciesofsusagewentwithhighindexscoresandlowfrequencieswithlowindexscores.（indexbasedonambition,degreeoftoughnessandpeergroupstatusinordertoassessthestrengthofanindividualsmembershipintheboysvernacularculture.）,Cheshireconcludedthatvariationiscontrolledbybothsocialandlinguisticfactors.Inboysspeech,variationisgovernedbynormsthatarecentraltothevernacularculture,andaretransmittedthroughthepeergroup.Variationinthegirlsspeechappearstobeamorepersonalprocessandlessrigidlycontrolledbyvernacularnorms.Bothboysandgirlsaresubjecttotwolinguisticconstraintsontheformofregularpresent-tenseverbs,ofwhichonefavorstheuseofthenon-standardverbformandtheotherfavorstheuseofthestandardform.Afurtherobservationwasthatvariationintheformofhaveanddoappearstobeduetolinguisticchangesinprogress.”AtopicwillbeexplainedindetailinChapter8.,DetroitStudypp170-176Shuy,WolframandRiley（1968）:

Whereasuppermiddleclassspeakersusedmultiplenegationonabout2percentofallpossibleoccasions,thecorrespondingpercentagesfortheotherthreesocialclasseswereasfollows:

lowermiddleclass,11percent,upperworkingclass,38percent,andlowerworkingclass,70percent.Althoughindividualsexhibitacertainamountofinconsistencyintheirlinguisticbehavior,thereisneverthelessapatterntothatbehavior.Wolframsstudy（1969）attemptedtoshowhowthedistributionoflinguisticvariablescorrelatedwithsuchfactorsassocialclass,sex,age,andracialorigin.Whereasitisquitepossiblethatthedifferencesbetweenthetwogroupsateachoftheends,i.e.,betweentheuppermiddleandthelowermiddleclassesandbetweentheupperworkingandthelowerworkingclasses,maynotbesignificant,therebeingonly12subjectsineachgroup,thedifferencebetweenthetoptwogroupsasawholeandthebottomtwogroupsasawhole,i.e.,betweenthemiddleclassandtheworkingclass,almostcertainlyisandprobablyataveryhighlevelofsignificance.Socialstatuswasthesinglemostimportantvariablecorrelatingwithlinguisticdifferences,withtheclearestboundarybeingbetweenthelowermiddleandupperworkingclasses.,MacaulaysstudyinGlasgow（1977）p173Aclearcorrelationbetweenvariationandsocialclass.Histwolowestclassestobemuchalikeinbehavior.Withmales,thegreatestdifferencebetweenclasseswasbetweenhistopclass（professionalandmanagerial）andthesecondhighestclass（whitecollar）,whereaswithfemalesthegreatestdifferencewasbetweenthetwointermediateclasses（whitecollarandskilledmanual）.Increaseinagealsoseemedtobeassociatedwithanincreaseinthedifferencebetweensocialclasses,thisdifferenceshowingitselftobeclearlyestablishedinthe15yearoldssurveyed（butapparentlyalsointhe10yearolds）.Whenindividualrathergroupbehaviorwasplottedforeachvariable,acontinuumofbehaviorwasexhibitedineachcase（thebehaviorofcertainindividualsineachclassoverlappingthebehaviorofindividualsinneighboringclasses）.Wecanconcludefromhisstudythatthelinguisticbehaviorofindividualsformsacontinuuminthesamewaythatsocialorganizationiscontinuous.Socialclassesareconstructsimposedonthiscontinuum.Iflinguisticvariationiscorrelatedwiththeaveragebehaviorofindividualsintheseclasses,itwillshowclassdifference.,SankoffandCedergren（1971）p174Thedistributionofthevariantsofthe（l）variableinOntrealFrenchisrelatetobothphonologicalandgrammaticalfactors,notjustsocialones.The（l）isaffectedbyitsrelationshiptothefollowingphonologicalsegmentandwhetheritoccursineitherapersonalorimpersonalpronoun,whentheseareevenofidenticalform,i.e.,il.SankoffandVincent（1977）pp174-175Neappearsincontextswherespeakersaremostlikelytobeawareofitself,andtobemonitoringtheirownspeech.Thetopicoflanguage,instruction,disciplineandreligiontendtospiritpeoplebacktoanormativeworldinwhichproperlanguagebecomesverysalient.,Hudson（1996:

178-180）pp175-176Thereisnooverlapwithinaparticularsex,sothatallmembersoftheuniversity-educatedmalegroupuselessassimilationthanallmembersofthenextgroup,thosewithsecondaryeducation,andthose,inturn,lessthanthemenwithprimaryeducation,andsoon.Thereareoverlapsbetweensexes,butevenherethepatternisentirelyconsistentinthatmalesalwaysoverlapthenextlowestgroupoffemales.Thatis,ifvowelassimilationisdispreferred,beingassociatedwithloweducationalattainment,malesshowtheconsequencesofthisjustalittlelessthandofemales.,Belfast:

MilroyandMilroy（1978）,Milroy（1980,1987a）pp177-179Socialnetworks,whichoriginateinkinshipties,determineanindividualsaccesstoemploymentandtootherresources.Peopledevelopcloseandcontinuingrelationshipswitheachother,andtheyhelponeanother,firsttheirkinandthentheirco-religionists.Howastablesetoflinguisticnormsemergesandmaintainsitselfinacommunity.LesleyMilroycallsthesevernacularnorms,normswhichareperceivedassymbolizingvaluesofsolidarityandreciprocityratherstatus,andarenotpubliclycodifiedorrecognized.Eachinformantisplacedonasix-pointscalewhichcharacterizedthatpersonsparticipationinnetworks.Thescaleforscoringindividualnetworkstrengthusedthefollowingfactors:

membershipinahigh-density,territoriallybasedcluster,kinshipintheintermediateneighborhood,workingwithatleasttwopeopleofthesamesexfromthesamearea,andvoluntaryleisure-timeassociationwithworkmates.TheMilroysexamined8linguisticvariablesandfoundsignificantcorrelationsbetweennetworkstrengthandlinguisticusageonfiveofthese,twoatp0.01（i.e.,thereislessthanonechanceinahundredthatthereisnosuchrelationship）andthreeatp0.05（i.e.,hereislessthanonechanceintwentythatthereisnosuchrelationship）.,Acloserinspectionoftheresultsbycommunityshowedthat,withoneexception,itwasonlyinBallymacarrettthattherewasasignificantcorrelationbetweenthevariablesandnetworkstrength.ThegreaterthenetworkstrengththegreatertheincidenceofthevariantsidentifiedwiththeBelfastvernacular.Asignificantdifferencealsoexistsbetweenmenandwomenintheiruseofthevernacular,withmenshowingamuchgreaterincidenceofvernacularusage.Thestrongerthesocialnetwork,thegreatertheuseofcertainlinguisticfeaturesofthevernacular.TheresultssupportMilroyshypothesisthataclose-knitnetworkhasthecapacitytofunctionasanormenforcementmechanism;thereisnoreasontosupposethatlinguisticnormsareexemptedfromthisprocess.Moreover,aclose-knitnetworkstructureappearstobeverycommoninlowstatuscommunities.Sheaddsthattheclose-knitnetworkmaybeseenasanimportantsocialmechanismofvernacularmaintenance,capableofoperatingeffectivelyinoppositiontoapubliclyendorsedandstatus-orientedsetoflegitimizedlinguisticnorms.Onceagain,weseehowlow-statusvarietiesofalanguagemaintainthemselvesinthefaceofheavycompetitionfromabove:

theyenablethosewhousethemtoshowtheirsolidaritywithoneanoth