现代语言学笔记讲解.docx

现代语言学笔记讲解.docx

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现代语言学笔记讲解

ADetailedNoteforModernLinguistics

Chapter1:

Introduction

1.Definethefollowingterms:

1）.Linguistics:

Itisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.

2）.Generallinguistics:

Thestudyoflanguageasawholeiscalledgenerallinguistics.

3）.Appliedlinguistics:

Inanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Inabroadsense,itreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticfindingstothesolutionofpracticalproblemssuchastherecoveryofspeechability.

4）.Synchronicstudy:

Thestudyofalanguageatsomepointintime.e.g.AstudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare’stimeisasynchronicstudy.

5）.Diachronicstudy:

Thestudyofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.e.g.astudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesinceShakespeare’stimeisadiachronicstudy.

6）.Languagecompetence:

Theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Atransformational-generativegrammar（转化生成语法）isamodeloflanguagecompetence.

7）.Languageperformance:

performanceistheactualrealizationoftheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesinlinguisticcommunication.

8）.Langue:

Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity;Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollow;Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently.

9）.Parole:

Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse;paroleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules;parolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.

10）.Language:

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

11）.Arbitrariness:

Itisoneofthedesignfeaturesoflanguage.Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.

12）.Productivity:

Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.

13）.Duality:

Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsatthelowerorbasiclevel,andtheotherofmeaningsatthehigherlevel.

14）.Displacement:

languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.

15）.Culturaltransmission:

Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.

16）.Designfeatures:

Itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication

2.Explainthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:

Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.

Linguisticsinvestigatesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.

Linguisticstudyisscientificbecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofauthentic（可靠的，真实的）languagedata.Noseriouslinguisticconclusionisreacheduntilafterthelinguisthasdonethefollowingthreethings:

observingthewaylanguageisactuallyused,formulatingsomehypotheses,andtestingthesehypothesesagainstlinguisticfactstoprovetheirvalidity.

3.Whatarethebranchesoflinguistics?

Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?

（语言学的主要分支是什么。

每个分支的研究对象是什么？

）

Linguisticsmainlyinvolvesthefollowingbranches:

1）Generallinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguageasawholeandwhichdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy

2）Phonetics,whichstudiesthesoundsthatareusedinlinguisticcommunication

3）Phonology,whichstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication

4）Morphology,whichstudiesthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords

5）Syntax,whichstudieshowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences

6）Semantics,whichisthestudyofmeaninginlan¬guage.

7）Pragmatics,whichisthestudyofmeaningnotinisolation,butinthecontextofuse

8）Sociolinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety

9）Psycholinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofmind.

10）Appliedlinguistics,whichisconcernedabouttheapplicationoflinguisticfindingsinlinguisticstudies;inanar¬rowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.

11）Otherrelatedbranchesareanthropologicallinguistics（人类语言学）,neurologicallinguistics（神经语言学）,mathematicallinguistics（数学语言学）,andcomputationallinguistics（计算机语言学）.

4.Whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?

（现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？

）

Traditionalgrammarisprescriptive（规定性）;itisbasedon"high"（religious,literary）writtenlanguage.Itsetsmodelsforlanguageuserstofollow.ButModernlinguisticsisdescriptive（描述性）;itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedata.Itissupposedtobescientificandobjectiveandthetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis"correct"ornot.

5.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronic（共时性）ordiachronic（历时性）?

Why?

（Thedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.）

Modernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage.Unlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefromadiachronicpointofview.

6.Whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwriting?

Why?

Modernlinguisticsgivesprioritytothespokenlanguageforthefollowingreasons:

First,speechprecedeswriting.Thewritingsystemisalwaysalaterinventionusedtorecordthespeech.Therearestillsomelanguagesthatonlyhavethespokenform.

Then,alargeramountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.

Third,speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.

7.Saussure是如何区分语言langue和言语parole的？

（ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebythefamousSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureearlythiscentury.LangueandparoleareFrenchwords.）

Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,butparoleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.

8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用performance各指什么？

（AmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’sproposedthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.）

Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Thisinternalizedsetofrulesenablesthelanguageusertoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous.AccordingtoChomsky,performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Althoughthespeaker’sknowledgeofhismothertongueisperfect,hisperformancesmayhavemistakesbecauseofsocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress,embarrassment,etc…Chomskybelievesthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyisthecompetence,whichissystematic,nottheperformance,whichistoohaphazard（偶然的）.

9.HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?

Andwhatistheirdifference?

BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.

TheydifferinthatSaussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.

10.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Firstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.

Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitrefersto.

Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages.

Theterm“human”ismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific.

11.WhatfeaturesofhumanlanguagehavebeenspecifiedbyCharlesHocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanyanimalcommunicationsystem?

人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？

1.Arbitrariness（任意性）:

（课本答案：

asignofsophisticationonlyhumansarecapableof）Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Althoughlanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.Non-arbitrarywordsmakeuponlyasmallpercentageofthetotalnumber.Thearbitrar