语言学定义1.docx

语言学定义1.docx

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语言学定义1

Semantics

IV.Definethefollowingterms:

31.Semantics:

Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.

32.Sense:

Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractanddecontextualized.

33.Reference:

Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience

34.Synonymy:

Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.

35.Polysemy:

Polysemyreferstothefactthatthesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.

36.Homonymy:

Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.

37.Homophones:

Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarecalledhomophones

38.Homographs:

Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.

39.Completehomonyms:

Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecalledcompletehomonyms.

40.Hyponymy:

Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.

41.Antonymy:

Antonymyreferstotherelationofoppositenessofmeaning.

42.Componentialanalysis:

Itdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents,orsemanticfeatures.

43.Thegrammaticalmeaning:

Thegrammaticalmeaningofasentencereferstoitsgrammaticality,i.e.,itsgrammaticalwell-formedness.Thegrammaticalityofasentenceisgovernedbythegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage.

44.Predication:

Thepredicationistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.

45.Argument:

Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication.Itisgenerallyidenticalwiththenominalelement（s）inasentence.

46.Predicate:

Apredicateissomethingthatissaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.

47.two-placepredication:

Atwo-placepredicationisonewhichcon-tainstwoarguments.

Pragmatics

IV.Definethefollowingterms:

31.Conversationalimplicature:

Inourdailylife,speakersandlistenersinvolvedinconversationaregenerallycooperatingwitheachother.Inotherwords,whenpeoplearetalkingwitheachother,theymusttrytoconversesmoothlyandsuccessfully.Inacceptingspeakers’presuppositions,listenershavetoassumethataspeakerisnottryingtomisleadthem.Thissenseofcooperationissimplyoneinwhichpeoplehavingaconversationarenotnormallyassumedtobetryingtoconfuse,trick,orwithholdrelevantinformationfromoneanother.However,inrealcommunication,theintentionofthespeakerisoftennottheliteralmeaningofwhatheorshesays.Therealintentionimpliedinthewordsiscalledconversationalimplicature.

32.Performative:

Inspeechacttheoryanutterancewhichperformsanact,suchasWatchout（=awarning）.

33.Locutionaryact:

Alocutionaryactisthesayingofsomethingwhichismeaningfulandcanbeunderstood.

34.Horn’sQ-principle:

（1）Makeyourcontributionsufficient（cf.quantity）;

（2）Sayasmuchasyoucan（givenR）.

37.Pragmatics:

Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.

38.Context:

Generallyspeaking,itconsistsoftheknowledgethatissharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:

theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,andtheknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.

39.Utterancemeaning:

themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.

40.Sentencemeaning:

Themeaningofasentenceisof-tenconsideredastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication.

41.Constative:

Constativeswerestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andwereverifiable;

42.Performative:

performatives,ontheotherhand,weresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andwerenotverifiable.Theirfunctionistoperformaparticularspeechact.

43.Locutionaryact:

Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.

44.illocutionaryact:

Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.

45.Perlocutionaryact:

Aperlocutionaryactistheactper-formedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.

46.CooperativePrinciple:

ItisprincipleadvancedbyPaulGrice.Itisaprinciplethatguidesourconversationalbehaviours.Thecontentis:

Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeorthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.

HistoricalLinguistics

IV.Definethefollowingterms:

51.Apocope:

Apocopeisthedeletionofaword-finalvowelsegment.

52.Metathesis:

Soundchangeasaresultofsoundmovementisknownasmetathesis.Itinvolvesareversalinpositionoftwoneighbouringsoundsegments.

53.Derivation:

Itisaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stemsorwords.

54.Back-formation:

Itisaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesupposedsuffixofanexistingword.

55.Semanticnarrowing:

Semanticnarrowingisaprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomeslessgeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearliermeaning.

56.Protolanguage:

Itistheoriginalformofalanguagefamilythathasceasedtoexist.

57.Haplology:

Itreferstothephenomenonofthelossofoneoftwophoneticallysimilarsyllablesinsequence.

58.Epenthesis:

Achangethatinvolvestheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofawordisknownasepenthesis.

59.Compounding:

Itisaprocessofcombiningtwoormorethantwowordsintoonelexicalunit.

60.Blending:

Itisaprocessofforminganewwordbycombiningpartsofotherwords.

61.Semanticbroadening:

Semanticbroadeningreferstotheprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomesmoregeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearlierdenotation.

62.Semanticshift:

Semanticshiftisaprocessofsemanticchangeinwhich

awordlosesitsformermeaningandacquiresanew,sometimesrelated,meaning.

63.GreatVowelShift:

ItisaseriesofsystematicsoundchangeattheendoftheMiddleEnglishperiodapproximatelybetween1400and1600inthehistoryofEnglishthatinvolvedsevenlongvowelsandconsequentlyledtooneofthemajordiscrepanciesbetweenEnglishpronunciationanditsspellingsystem.

64.Acronym:

Anacronymisawordcreatedbycombiningtheinitialsofanumberofwords.

65.Soundassimilation:

Soundassimilationreferstothephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonan-other.Inanassimilativeprocess,successivesoundsaremadeidentical,ormoresimilar,tooneanotherintermsofplaceormannerofarticulation,orofhaplology.

Sociolinguistics

IV.Definethefollowingterms:

43.Sociolinguistics:

Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinsocialcontexts.

44.Speechcommunity:

Thesocialgroupisolatedforanygivenstudyiscalledthespeechcommunityoraspeechcommunityisagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunityandsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyoflanguage.Theimportantcharacteristicofaspeechcommunityisthatthemembersofthegroupmust,insomereasonableway,interactlinguisticallywithothermembersofthecommunity.Theymaysharecloselyrelatedlanguagevarieties,aswellasattitudestowardlinguisticnorms.

45.Speechvariety:

Speechvariety,alsoknownaslanguagevariety,referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.Thedistinctivecharacteristicsofaspeechvarietymaybelexical,phonological,morphological,syntactic,oracombinationoflinguisticfeatures.

46.Languageplanning:

languagestandardizationisknownaslanguageplanning.Thismeansthatcertainauthorities,suchasthegovernmentorgovernmentagencyofacountry,chooseaparticularspeechvarietyandspreadtheuseofit,includingitspronunciationandspellingsystems,acrossregionalboundaries.

47.Idiolect:

Anidiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcom-binesaspectsofalltheelementsregardingregional,social,andstylisticvariation,inoneformoranother.Inanarrowersense,whatmakesupone’sidiolectincludesalsosuchfactorsasvoicequality,pitchandspeechrhythm,whichallcontributetotheidentifyingfeaturesinanindividual'sspeech.

48.Standardlanguage:

Thestandardlanguageisasuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectoflanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.

49.Nonstandardlanguage:

Languagevarietiesotherthanthestandardarecallednonstandardlanguages

50.Linguafranca:

Alinguafrancaisavarietyoflanguagethatservesasamediumofcommunicationamonggroupsofpeoplefordiverselinguisticbackgrounds.

51.Pidgin:

Apidginisavarietyoflanguagethatisgenerallyusedbynativespeakersofotherlanguagesasamediumofcommunication.

52.Creole:

ACreolelanguageisoriginallyapidginthathasbecomeestablishedasa