现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter9文档格式.docx

现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter9文档格式.docx

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*Aspecificenvironmentmayaddafreshandhighlytechnicalsensetoawordofgeneraluse.

energy=（Phys.）abilityofmatterorradiationtodowork

decline=（Gram.）inflect,statethecase-formsof

C.Foreigninfluences外来文化影响

Aparticularlyimportantcause.

eg.

-pig,sheep,ox（cow）denotethenamesofboththeanimalsandtheirmeatintheOldEnglishperiod,butsincethemeatwascalledpork,muttonandbeefrespectivelyamongtheNormanconquerors,theoriginaltermsarenowusedonlyasthenamesoftheanimals.

-dreammeant“joy”inOE,itgetsitsmodernsensefromtherelatedScandinavianworddraumr.

D.Linguisticcause语言上的原因

*Twotendencies:

towardsellipsis省略andtowardsanalogy类推.

-Ellipsisasacauseofsemanticchangeoftenoccursinhabitualcollocations,suchasadj.+n.,orattributiven.+n.,inwhichthenounisoftendeletedandonlythefirstelement（theattributive）isleft,butretainingthesenseofthewholephrase.

ageneral–ageneralofficer一位将军

aneditorial–aneditorialarticle一篇社论

bugle–buglehorn号角

gold–goldmedal,asintheOlympicGames金牌

uniform–uniformdress制服

transistor–transistorradio收音机

daily–dailynewspaper日报

duplicate–duplicatecopy副本

-Analogicaltendency:

Newmeaningsdevelopedinonepartofspeecharepassedontootherpartsofspeechfromthesamelexicalbase.

diplomatic（外交的，外交上的）whichhadearliermeantonly“skillfulinmanaginginternationalrelations,”hadby1826developedthesenseof“tactfulinthemanagementofrelationsofanykind;

artfulmanagementitdealingwithothers.”By1848，thisnewmeaninghadbeenpassedontothenoundiplomacy.（外交；

外交手腕；

交际手段）

E.Psychologicalcause心理学上的原因

*Threeforms

a）Euphemism委婉

Peoplehaveatendencytousemild,agreeablelanguagewhenspeakingofanunpleasantorembarrassingfact（suchasdeath,disease,unfortunateeventsorcrime）,andoftaboosubjectsassexandtheexcretiveprocessesofthebody.

eg.hencedeathandthingsrelatedtodeath

-topassaway

-tobreatheone’slast

-toceasetothink

-tofallasleep

-togowest

-tokickthebucket

-tobenomore

b）Grandiloquence夸

Grandiloquencereferstotheuseoflong,important-soundingwordsforeffort.Thedesiretoupgradeorraisethesocialstatusofaposition,occupation,orinstitutionbychangingitscommonnametoonefelttoconfergreaterdignityorimportanceisanotherpsychologicalfactorinthechangeofwordmeaning.

janitor看门人；

守卫；

门警–custodian管理人；

监护人；

保管人

gardener园丁；

花匠；

园艺家–landscapearchitect造园技师；

环境美化设计家

reformschool教养院；

少年犯管教所–communityhome少年感化院；

c）Cynicism嘲讽

Cynicism:

thedesiretosneerandtobesarcastic.

eg.

pious虔诚的；

敬神的；

可嘉的；

尽责的--hypocriticallyvirtuous伪善地善良

fanatic狂热的；

盲信的—unreasonablyenthusiastic,almostapproachingtomadness

grandiloquent夸的；

夸大的；

大言不惭的—pompousinlanguage;

giventobeautifultalk

sanctimonious假装虔诚的；

假装圣洁的；

假装诚实的–devout,holyorsacred

9.2FourTendenciesinSemanticChange

A.Restrictionofmeaning（specialization）词义的缩小/具体化

♦Restrictionofmeaningmeansthatawordofwidemeaningacquiresanarrow,specializedsensewhichisapplicabletoonlyoneoftheobjectsithadpreviouslydenoted.

Condition

Words

Originalmeaning

Meaningafterrestriction

meat

food,esp.solidfood,asdistinguishedfromdrink

thefleshofanimalsusedasfood,excludingfishandbirds

wife

woman

marriedwomanesp.inrelationtoherhusband

success

result,outcome

afavourableorsatisfactoryoutcomeorresult

whenitpassesintoaspecialfield

cleanroom/whiteroom

aroomforthemanufactureorassemblyofobjects（asprecisionparts）thatismaintainedatahighlevelofcleanlinessbyspecialmeans

dependentonone’sprofessionorchiefinterestsinlife

pipe

Tomusician–asimpletubelikemusicalinstrument,playedbyblowing

Totobaccosmokerandanarchitect–itsuggestsotherandquitedifferentmeanings

undertheinfluenceoflocalconditions

Nickel

intheU.S.means“acoin,value5cents”

newwordsmoveintothelanguage

washable

sth.isabletobewashed

sth.esp.clothing,thatcanbewashedinwaterwithoutbeingsolided

breakable

sth.iseasilybroken

impliesthatonehastotakegoodcareofitandhandleitcarefully

B.Extensionofmeaning（generalization）词义的扩大/普遍化

♦Extensionofmeaning:

meansthewideningofaword’ssenseuntilitcoversmuchmorethanwhatitoriginallyconveyed.

*Twomainreasonsforthistendency:

1.Thepredominantdevelopmentaltrendisinthedirectionofdifferentiationratherthanofsynthesis;

2.Relatedtothefirst,isthattheformationofgeneralconceptsfromspecifictermsisoflesserimportanceinnon-scientificcommunicationthoughitisratheracharacteristicofscientificendeavor.

Meaningafterextended

bird

fromOEbird,ayoungbird

ageneraltermforfeatheredcreatureswithtwolegsandwings,usuallyabletofly

plant

fromLplanta,asprout

agenerictermforthewholebotanicalspecies

losttheirprecisemeaningandhavegraduallyfadedintosuchavaguesensethattheymaystandforalmostanything

thing

（business,state,condition,matter,circumstance,fact,etc.）all-purposeword

acouncil,court,orcontroversy

usedasasubstitutefornearlyanynoundependingonthecontextinwhichitisused

generous

fromLgenerosusof“noblebirth”

willingtogiveorshare;

unselfish;

liberal

C.Degenerationofmeaning（pejoration）词义的降格/语义转贬

♦Twomainforms:

1.Thefailingofwordmeaningintodisrepute,foronereasonoranother.

eg.silly

1）OriginatedfromtheASsœligmeaning“blessingandhappy”

2）Sincetheblessedpeopleareusuallythoseinnocentofevil,thewordcametomean“innocent”inthe17thcentury

3）Asinnocentpeoplearesooftenthoseleadingsimplelives,itlatercametomean“simple”and“simple-minded”,whichisoftenassociatedwith“lackofintelligence”

4）hencethemodernmeaningofthewordsilly:

“foolish”.

2.Thisformmaytaketheformofthegradualextensiontosomanysensesthatanyparticularmeaningwhichawordmayhavehadiscompletelylost.

*Thisformreferstotheweakeningofmeaningresultingfromhabitualuseofparticularwordsonunsuitableoccasions.

D.Elevationofmeaning（amelioration）词义的升格/语义改良

♦Elevationofmeaning:

awordmeaningtakesaturnforthebetterinthecourseoftime,andhaseitherrisenfroma“snarl”wordtoa“purr”word,orfromaslangtermtoacommonword.

Words

Meaningafterelevation

marshal

ahorsetender驯马师

officerofhighestrank元帅；

司仪

minister

anattendant,aservant牧师

apersonattheheadofaDepartmentofState部长；

大臣

fond

foolish

tenderandaffectionate喜欢的；

温柔的；

宠爱的

9.3SemanticDevelopmentorChangeResultingfromtheFigurativeUseofWords

A.Metaphor隐喻，暗喻

♦Metaphorisafigureofspeechcontaininganimpliedcomparisonbasedonassociationofsimilarity,inwhichawordoraphraseordinarilyandprimarilyusedforonethinginappliedtoanother,aprocesswhichoftenresultsinsemanticchangeorfigurativeextensionofmeaning.

eg.foodforthought,aheartofstone;

thunderousapplause

acunningperson–fox

abeautifulwoman–vision美景

♦Twotypes:

a）Thesimilaritybetweentenorandvehiclemaybebasedonlikenessinformorappearance;

onaresemblanceinrelativeposition;

inqualityorinfunction.

eg.eyeofaneedle

theteethofacomb

thebridgeofapairofeyeglasses

thecrestofamountain

b）Thereisonepsychologicalprocesswhichalsoproduceslinguisticresultssimilartothoseofmetaphor:

eg.synaesthesia.联觉“whichisbasedontransportationfromonesensetoanother”

*Manywordshavebeenusedsofrequentlyasmetaphorsthattheirmetaphoricalsensehavebecomewell-establishedinpeople’sminds.Theyarecalledfadedmetaphorsandappearasoneoftheword’smeaningslistedinanystandarddictionaries.

B.Metonymy借喻，转喻，借代

♦Metonymyisafigureofspeechbywhichanobjectorideaisdescribedbythenameofsomethingcloselyrelatedtoit.

eg.thewhitehouse–thepresidentorfort