思辨黑体字英.docx

思辨黑体字英.docx

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思辨黑体字英

Unit1

Notes:

Moralsubjectivism:

Theideathatwhatisrightandwrongismerelyamatterofsubjectiveopinion,thatthinkingsomethingisrightorwrongmakesitrightorwrongforthatindividual.

Issue:

Apointthatisormightbedisputed,debated,orwonderedabout.Essentially,aquestion.

Argument:

Anattempttosupportorproveacontentionbyprovidingareasonforacceptingit.Thecontentionitselfiscalledtheconclusion;thestatement（orstatements）offeredassupportordemonstrationisreferredtoasthepremise（orpremises）.Sometimes“argument”isusedtoreferonlytothepremise（orpremises）.

Premise:

Theclaimorclaimsinanargumentthoughttosupportordemonstrateaconclusion.

Conclusion:

Inanargument,theclaimthoughttobesupportedordemonstratedbyanotherclaim（orclaims）referredtoasthepremise（orpremises）.

Beliefbias:

Thetendencytoevaluateanargumentbyhowbelievableitsconclusionis.

Confirmationbias:

Atendencytoattachmoreweighttoconsiderationsthatsupportourviews.

Heuristic:

Aruleofthumbemployedunconsciouslybypeoplewhentheyestimateprobabilities.Inpsychology,thefieldknownas“heuristicsandbiases”wasoriginatedbyDanielKahnemanandAmosTversky.

Availabilityheuristic:

Unconsciouslyassigningaprobabilitytoatypeofeventonthebasisofhowoftenonethinksofeventsofthattype.

Falseconsensuseffect:

Assumingthattheviewsheldbymembersofourgroupareheldbysocietyatlarge

Bandwagoneffect:

Anunconscioustendencytomodifyone'sviewstomakethemconsonantwiththoseofotherpeople.

Negativitybias:

Anunconscioustendencytogivemoreweighttonegativeevaluationsthantopositiveevaluations.

Lossaversion:

Beingmorestronglymotivatedtoavoidalossthantoaccrueagain.

In-groupbias:

Apredispositiontofindfaultwithoutsiders.

Fundamentalattributionerror:

Atendencytoattributethemistakesofmembersofthein-grouptoextenuatingcircumstances,whileattributingthesamemistakeswhenmadebymembersofout-groupstocharacterdefects

Obediencetoauthority:

Thetendencytocomplywithinstructionsfromanauthorityevenwhentheyconflictwithourvalues.

Overconfidenceeffect:

Atendencytooverestimatethepercentageofcorrectanswerswehavegiventoquestionsonasubjectwearenotexpertsabout.

Better-than-averageillusion:

Whenamajorityofagroupestimatestheyarebetteratsomethingthanamajorityofthegroup,thegroupissaidtobesubjecttothisillusion.Whenthemajorityofagroupestimatestheyareworseatsomethingthanamajorityofgroup,theyaresaidtobesubjecttothe“worsethanaverageillusion.”

Recap

Claim:

Whenabelief（judgment,opinion）isassertedinadeclarativesentence,theresultisaclaim,statement,orassertion.

•Objectiveclaimvs.subjectiveclaim:

Anobjectiveclaimistrueorfalseregardlessofwhetherpeoplethinkitistrueorfalse.Claimsthatlackthispropertyaresaidtobesubjective.

•“Factvs.opinion”:

Peoplesometimesrefertotrueobjectiveclaimsas“facts,”andusetheword“opinion”todesignateanyclaimthatissubjective.

•“Factualclaim”:

Anobjectiveclaim.Sayingthataclaimis“factual”isnotthesameassayingitistrue.Afactualclaimissimplyaclaimwhosetruthdoesnotdependonourthinkingitistrue.

•Moralsubjectivism:

Moralsubjectivismistheideathatmoraljudgmentsaresubjective.“Thereisnothingeithergoodorbadbutthatthinkingmakesitso.”

•Issue:

Aquestion.

•Argument:

Anargumentconsistsoftwoparts—onepartofwhich（thepremiseorpremises）isintendedtoprovideareasonforacceptingtheotherpart（theconclusion）.

•“Argument”:

Peoplesometimesusethiswordtoreferjusttoanargument'spremise.

•Argumentsandissues:

Theconclusionofanargumentstatesapositionontheissueunderconsideration.

•Cognitivebias:

Afeatureofhumanpsychologythatskewsbeliefformation.Theonesdiscussedinthischapterincludethefollowing:

◇Beliefbias:

Evaluatingreasoningbyhowbelievableitsconclusionis.

◇Confirmationbias:

Atendencytoattachmoreweighttoconsiderationsthatsupportourviews.

◇Availabilityheuristic:

Assigningaprobabilitytoaneventbasedonhoweasilyorfrequentlyitisthoughtof.

◇Falseconsensuseffect:

Assumingouropinionsandthoseheldbypeoplearoundusaresharedbysocietyatlarge.

◇Bandwagoneffect:

Thetendencytoalignourbeliefswiththoseofotherpeople.

◇Negativitybias:

Attachingmoreweighttonegativeinformationthantopositiveinformation.

◇Lossaversion:

Beingmorestronglymotivatedtoavoidalossthantoaccrueagain.

◇In-groupbias:

Asetofcognitivebiasesthatmakeusviewpeoplewhobelongtoourgroupdifferentlyfrompeoplewhodon't.

◇Fundamentalattributionerror:

Havingoneunderstandingofthebehaviorofpeopleinthein-groupandanotherforpeoplenotinthein-group.

◇Obediencetoauthority:

Atendencytocomplywithinstructionsfromanauthority.

◇Overconfidenceeffect:

Acognitivebiasthatleadsustooverestimatewhatpercentageofouranswersonasubjectarecorrect.

◇Better-than-averageillusion:

Aself-deceptioncognitivebiasthatleadsustooverestimateourownabilitiesrelativetothoseofothers.

•Truth:

Aclaimistrueifitisfreefromerror.

•Knowledge:

Ifyoubelievesomething,haveanargumentbeyondareasonabledoubtthatitisso,andhavenoreasontothinkyouaremistaken,youcanclaimyouknowit.

Unit2

Notes：

Premise：

Theclaimorclaimsinanargumentthoughttosupportordemonstrateaconclusion.

Conclusion：

Inanargument,theclaimthoughttobesupportedordemonstratedbyanotherclaim（orclaims）referredtoasthepremise（orpremises）.

Validargument:

Anargumentsuchthatitwouldbeself-contradictorytomaintainthattheconclusionisfalseandthepremise（orpremises）aretrue.

Soundargument:

Avalidargumentwhosepremisesaretrue

Stronger/weakerarguments:

Themorelikelythepremiseofaninductiveargumentmakestheconclusion,thestrongertheargument,andthelesslikelyitmakestheconclusion,theweakertheargument.

Balanceofconsiderationsreasoning:

Tryingtodeterminewhichconsiderations,bothforandagainstthinkingordoingsomething,carrythemostweight.

InferencetotheBestExplanation（IBE）:

Anargumentwhoseconclusionstatesthemostlikelycauseofsomething.

Recap

Argumentsalwayshavetwoparts,apremise（orpremises）andaconclusion.

Thesamestatementcanbeapremiseinoneargumentandaconclusioninasecondargument.

Thetwofundamentaltypesofreasoningaredeductivedemonstrationandinductivesupport.

Adeductiveargumentisusedtodemonstrateorproveaconclusion,whichitdoesifitissound.

Anargumentissoundifitisvalidanditspremise（orpremises）istrue.

Anargumentisvalidifitisn'tpossibleforitspremiseorpremisestobetrueanditsconclusiontobefalse.

Aninductiveargumentisusedtosupportratherthantodemonstrateaconclusion.

Anargumentsupportsaconclusionifitincreasesthelikelihoodthattheconclusionistrue.

Supportisamatterofdegrees:

Anargumentsupportsaconclusiontotheextentitspremise（orpremises）makestheconclusionlikely.

Anargumentthatoffersmoresupportforaconclusionissaidtobestrongerthanonethatofferslesssupport;thelatterissaidtobeweakerthantheformer.

Someinstructorsusetheword“strong”inanabsolutesensetodenoteinductiveargumentswhosepremise（orpremises）makestheconclusionmorelikelythannot.

Ifitdoesn'tmakesensetothinkofanargumentasprovidingevidenceorsupportforacontention,itisprobablybecauseitisadeductiveargument.

Inductiveargumentsanddeductiveargumentscanhaveunstatedpremises.

Whetheranargumentisdeductiveorinductivemaydependonwhattheunstatedpremiseissaidtobe.

Ifanargumentiswritten,diagrammingitmayhelpyouunderstandit.

Balanceofconsiderationsreasoningofteninvolvesdeductiveandinductiveelements.

Inferencetobestexplanationisacommontypeofinductivereasoninginwhichtheconclusionexplainsthecauseofsomething.

Unit3

Notes:

Vagueness:

 Aconceptisvagueifwecannotsaywithcertaintywhatitincludesandwhatitexcludes.

Ambiguity:

 Havingmorethanonemeaning.Anambiguousclaimisonethatcanbeinterpretedinmorethanonewayandwhosemeaningisnotmadeclearbythecontext.SeealsoSemanticambiguity;Syntacticambiguity.

Groupingambiguity:

 Akindofsemanticambiguityinwhichitisunclearwhetheraclaimreferstoagroupofthingstakenindividuallyorcollectively

.Ambiguouspronounreference:

 Astatementorphraseinwhichitisnotcleartowhatortowhomapronounissupposedtorefer.

Generality:

 Lackofdetailorspecificity.ThemoredifferentkindsofXstowhichthewordforXsapplies,themoregeneralthatwordis.

Precisingdefinition:

 Adefinitionwhosepurposeistoreducevaguenessorgeneralityortoeliminateambiguity.

Stipulativedefinition:

 Adefinition（ofaword）thatisspecifictoaparticularcontext.

Rhetoricaldefinition:

 Apseudo-definitiongiventoexpressourfeelingsorinfluencesomeoneelse's.

Emotivemeaning:

 Thepositiveornegativeassociationsofanexpression;anexpression'srhetoricalforce.

Rhetoricalforce:

 SeeEmotivemeani

Definitionbyexample:

 Pointingto,naming,orotherwiseidentifyingoneormoreexamplesofthetermbeingdefined;alsocalledostensivedefinition.

Ostensivedefinition:

 SeeDefinitionbyexample.

Definitionbysynonym:

 Givinganotherwordorphrasethatmeansthesamethingasthetermbeingdefined.

Analyticaldefinition:

 Specificationofthefeaturesathingmustpossessinorderforthetermbeingdefinedtoapplytoit.