北科大语言学内部教学教案8考研必备文档格式.docx

北科大语言学内部教学教案8考研必备文档格式.docx

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What’sthemeaningoflife?

–point

Whatdoesitmeantoyou?

–convey

Whatdoes“ghost”mean?

–refertointheworld

Ineverydayuseoflanguage,wearemorefrequentlyconcernedwiththelasttwomeanings,butwhenweuselanguageinaspecificcontext,wecanmeanmorethanthat.Lookatthefollowingsentencesandexpressions:

Mothershoutstotheson:

“Dog!

”

Wifesaystothehusband:

“It’scoldhere.”

Girlsaystoboyfriend:

“Mybagisheavy.”

“Janet!

Donkeys!

”（DavidCopperfield）

Inthesesentences,firstthespeakerdoesmeanthedictionaryorconceptualmeaningofthewords,buttheymeansomethingmorethanthat.Theyhavesomespecialintentioninspeakingthesewords.Thenwecometothedifferencebetweensentencemeaningandutterancemeaning.

8.1.1Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning

Sentenceisagrammaticalconcept.Itisanabstract,self-containedunitinisolationfromcontext.Thereforesentencemeaningisanabstractandintrinsicproperty.Itisdecontextualized.SobysentencemeaningweexplorewhatXmeans.Incontrast,byutterancemeaning,weexploreWhatyoumeanbyX.utteranceissomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose.Thereforeutterancemeaningisconcreteandcontext-dependent.ItisalsoreferredtoasSpeaker’smeaningorcontextualmeaning.

Thenifwereviewtheexpressionswehavejustcovered,wecanseethedifferencebetweensentencemeaningandutterancemeaning.Bysaying“dog’,themothermeansafurrydomesticanimalthatiskeptnowadaysasapet.Thisisthesentencemeaning.However,theutterancemeaningis:

Becareful!

Similarly,wecanfindthedifferencebetweensentencemeaningandutterancemeaningwiththeotherexamples.

Therefore,aquestionweareconcernedwithis:

Howdowerecognizeutterancemeaning?

Utterancemeaningmaybeseenasthesumtotalofsentencemeaningandcontext.Thenwecometoanotherimportantconceptinpragmatics:

context.

8.1.2Context

Contextisusedhereasacovertermofbothlinguisticknowledgeandextra-linguisticknowledgeinvolvedinlanguageuseandlanguageunderstanding.Linguisticknowledgeincludesknowledgeofthelanguagethatisusedaswellasknowledgeofwhathasbeensaidbefore.Thisisalsoreferredtoaslinguisticcontext.Extralinguisticknowledgeincludesknowledgeabouttheworldingeneral,knowledgeaboutthespecificsituationandknowledgeabouteachother.Knowledgeabouttheworldingeneralissometimesroughlyreferredtoasbackgroundknowledge,includingcommonsense,socialnormsandconversationrules.Let’slookatthefollowingexamplesandseehowbackgroundknowledgegetsinvolvedinunderstandingthemeaningofanutterance:

ItwasahotChristmasdaysowewentdowntothebeachintheafternoonandhada

goodtimeswimmingandsurfing.

A:

Doyoulikerugby?

B:

IamaNewZealander.

YouspeakbeautifulEnglish.

MyEnglishisverypoor.

Knowledgeaboutthesituationisusuallyreferredtoassituationalknowledgeorsituationalcontext,includingtime,place,topicformalityandrelationbetweenthespeakerandhearer.Thefollowingexamplesillustratehowthesamesentencecanresultindifferentutterancemeaningindifferentsituations:

●吃过了吗？

1、两个熟人打招呼。

2、说话人手里拿着包子。

3、说话人与听话人约好去超市，催促动身。

4、说话人与听话人密谋害人。

●甲：

做啥呢？

乙：

看手机呢。

甲：

我早都看过了。

手机，我要买手机。

Thenextexampleshowshowmutualknowledgesharedbythespeakerandhearerinfluencestheunderstandingofutterancemeaning:

Areyougoingtotheseminar?

It’sonlinguistics.

Wouldyoulikesomecoffee?

Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.

8.1.3Context&

languageuse

Nextwe’lllookathowcontextaffectslanguageuse.Contextdeterminesthehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohimaswellasgoverningthespeaker’suseoflanguage.Canyougivemesomeexamples?

Thinkaboutthefollowingexamples:

●In-classconversationvs.after-class

●Borrowingapenvs.200yuan

●Borrowingsthfromyourclassmatevs.fromyourteacher

●Talkingtoatwo-year-oldvs.anadult

8.1.4DefinitionofPragmatics

Havingmadeclearallthenotions,finallywecometothedefinitionofpragmatics.Pragmaticsmaybedefinedas:

●Thestudyoflanguageinuse.

●Thestudyoflanguageproduction&

languagecomprehension.

●Thestudyofmeaningincontext.

●Thestudyoflanguageinrelationtoitsusers.

●Thestudyofspeaker’smeaning,utterancemeaning&

contextualmeaning.

8.2Speechacttheory言语行为理论

TheSpeechActtheorywasfirstputforwardbyJohnAustin,anOxfordprofessor,inHowtoDoThingswithWords（1962）.ThetheorywaslaterdevelopedbyAnAmericanphilosopher,JohnSearle,inSpeechAct:

AnEssayinthePhilosophyofLanguage（1975）.Byspeechacts,werefertoactionsperformedbymeansofutterance.

8.2.1Constativesvs.performatives表述句与施为句

Austindiscoveredthatthesentencesweusefallintotwodifferenttypes:

constativesandperformatives.Thetermconstativesisusedtorefertosentencesthatdescribewhatthespeakerisdoingatthetimeofspeaking.Forexample,achemistryteacherinademonstrationofanexperimentmaysay:

Ipoursomeliquidintothetube.Whensayingthesewords,theteachermustdotheactualpouring.Otherwisehemightbeaccusedofmakingafalsestatement.Thusconstativesareverifiable.Theycaneitherbetrueorfalse.Incontrast,performativesdonotdescribethings.Theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Theutteranceofthesesentences,instead,is,orisapartof,thedoingofanaction.That’swhytheyarecalledperformatives.Let’slookatthefollowingexamples:

a.InamethisshiptheQueenElizabeth.

b.Ibequeathmywatchtomybrother.

c.Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.

d.Ipromisetofinishitintime.

e.Iapologize.

f.Ideclarethemeetingopen.

g.Iwarnyouthatthebullwillcharge.

Whenthespeakerspeaksthesesentences,heisatthesametimedoingtheactiondenotedbytheitalicizedverb.Andtheseverbsarecalledperformativeverbs.

Youmusthavenoticedthat,forthesesentencestobeabletoperformanaction,someconditionsmustbemade.Forexample,theonewhonamestheshipshouldbetheowneroftheshiporanofficialinasuitablepositiontodoso.IfIjuststandbyashipandsaysomesimilarthing,itwillnotperformthenamingaction.Also,forthebequeathingactiontobeappropriate,thespeakermusthaveawatch.Andinthecaseofthepromiseandapology,thespeakermustsincerelyhavetheintentiontodothepromisedthingorsincerelyfeelsorryforwhathashappened.Theseconditionsthatmaketheperformativesappropriateorfelicitousarecalledfelicityconditions（恰当条件）.

，

Austinsuggestedthefollowingfelicityconditions:

A.（i）Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure,and

（ii）therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.

B.Theproceduremustbeexecuted（i）correctlyand（ii）completely.

C.Veryoften,（i）therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,and（ii）mustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.

Whentheseconditionsareviolated,thespeechactwillbecomeinfelicitous.Example:

marryingceremonyorship-launchingceremony.

However,Austinsoondiscoveredthattheconditionsonlyapplytosomecases.Forexample,thereisnoconventionalproceduretoproduceaperformativeofapologizing.Atthesametime,constativesmayalsobeinfelicitousintheseways.Forexample,asentencewehavequoted“ThepresentKingofFranceisbald”isinfelicitous,becausethereisnosuchentityas“thepresentKingofFrance”.Thisissimilartosaying“Ibequeathmywatchtoyou”whenthespeakeractuallyhasnowatchatall.

Asforthegrammaticalandlexicalfeaturesofperformativesentences,Austinnoticesthattypicalperformativesusefirstpersonsingularsubject,simplepresenttense,indicativemood,activevoiceandperformativeverbs.Butthesearenotabsolutecriteriaandtherearealwaysexceptions.Forexample,therearepassiveperformativeslike“Dogsmustbecarriedontheescalator”andininformalsituations,othermoodsandtensesarepossible.Forexample,“Sorry”insteadof“Iapologize”.

Thereforewecanseethatit’shardtodistinguishperformativesfromconstativeseitherbythefelicityconditionsorbygrammaticalorlexicalcriteria.Thedistinctionbetweenthemtwocannotbemaintained.SolaterAustintotallyabandonedthisideaofperformativesandconstatives.

8.2.2Atheoryoftheillocutionaryact言外行为理论

WhenAustindroppedthedistinctionbetweenconstativesandperformatives,hebegantothinkaboutanotherquestion:

inwhatsensetosaysomethingistodosomething.Austinsuggeststhreebasicsensesinwhichinsayingsomethingoneisdoingsomething,andthreekindsofactsareperformedsimultaneously:

1）Locutionaryact:

theutteranceofasentencewithspecificsenseandreference;

2）Illocutionaryact:

themakingofastatement,