北科大语言学内部教学教案11考研必备.docx

北科大语言学内部教学教案11考研必备.docx

《北科大语言学内部教学教案11考研必备.docx》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《北科大语言学内部教学教案11考研必备.docx（12页珍藏版）》请在冰点文库上搜索。

北科大语言学内部教学教案11考研必备

Lecture11TheoriesandSchoolsofModernLinguistics

11.1Saussure

ModernlinguisticsbeganfromtheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussure（1857-1913）,whoisoftendescribedas“fatherofmodernlinguistics”and“amasterofadisciplinewhichhemademodern”（Culler,1976:

7）.His1916book,CourseinGeneralLinguistics,whichwasacollectionofhislecturenotes,markedthebeginningofmodernlinguistics.

Saussure’sideasweredevelopedalongthreelines:

linguistics,sociology,andpsychology.Inlinguistics,hewasgreatlyinfluencedbytheAmericanlinguistW.D.Whitney（1827-94）,whoinsistedontheconceptofarbitrarinessofthesign.Insociology,hefollowedtheFrenchsociologistDurkheim.Inpsychology,SaussurewasinfluencedbyFreud.

Saussurebelievedthatlanguageisasystemofsigns.Tocommunicateideas,theymustbepartofasystemofconventions,partofasystemofsigns.Thissignistheunionofaformandanidea,whichSaussurecalledthesignifierandthesignified.SomeimportantdistinctionsSaussuremadeinlinguisticsincludelanguevs.parole,syntagmaticvs.paradigmatic,andsynchronicvs.diachronic.

Saussureexertedtwokindsofinfluenceonmodernlinguistics.First,heprovidedageneralorientation,asenseofthetaskoflinguisticswhichhasseldombeenquestioned.Second,heinfluencedmodernlinguisticsinthespecificconcepts.Manyofthedevelopmentsofmodernlinguisticscanbedescribedashisconcept,i.e.hisideaofthearbitrarynatureofthesign,languevs.parole,synchronyvs.diachrony,syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations,etc.Saussure’sfundamentalperceptionisofrevolutionarysignificance,anditishethatpushedlinguisticsintoabrandnewstageandalllinguisticsinthetwentiethcenturyareSaussureanlinguistics.

11.2ThePragueSchool

ThePragueSchoolcanbetracedbacktoitsfirstmeetingundertheleadershipofV.Mathesius（1882–1946）in1926.Itsmostimportantcontributiontolinguisticsisthatitseeslanguageintermsoffunction.

ThreeimportantpointsconcerningtheideasofthePragueSchool:

First,itwasstressedthatthesynchronicstudyoflanguageisfullyjustified.Second,therewasanemphasisonthesystemiccharacteroflanguage.Elementsareheldtobeinfunctionalcontrastoropposition.Third,languagewaslookedonasfunctionalinanothersense,thatis,asatoolperforminganumberofessentialfunctionsortasksforthecommunityusingit.

11.2.1Phonologyandphonologicaloppositions

ThePragueSchoolisbestknownandrememberedforitscontributiontophonologyandthedistinctionbetweenphoneticsandphonology.ThemostinfluentialscholarinthisconnectionisTrubetzkoy,whosemostcompleteandauthoritativestatementsofprincipleareformulatedinhisPrinciplesofPhonology（1939）.FollowingSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparole,Trubetzkoyarguedthatphoneticsbelongedtoparolewhereasphonologybelongedtolangue.Onthisbasishedevelopedthenotionof“phoneme”asanabstractunitofthesoundsystemasdistinctfromthesoundsactuallyproduced.APHONEMEmaybedefinedasthesumofthedifferentialfunctions.Soundsmaybephonemesinsofarastheycanservetodistinguishmeaning.

Inclassifyingdistinctivefeatures,Trubetzkoyproposedthreecriteria:

（1）theirrelationtothewholecontrastivesystem;

（2）relationsbetweentheopposingelements;and（3）theirpowerofdiscrimination.Trubetzkoy’scontributionstophonologicaltheoryconcernfouraspects.First,heshoweddistinctivefunctionsofspeechsoundsandgaveanaccuratedefinitionforthephoneme.Second,bymakingdistinctionsbetweenphoneticsandphonology,andbetweenstylisticphonologyandphonology,hedefinedthesphereofphonologicalstudies.Third,bystudyingthesyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsbetweenphonemes,herevealedtheinterdependentrelationsbetweenphonemes.Finally,heputforwardasetofmethodologiesforphonologicalstudies,suchasthemethodofextractingphonemesandthemethodofstudyingphonologicalcombinations.

11.2.2FunctionalSentencePerspective（FSP）功能句子观

FunctionalSentencePerspective（FSP）isatheoryoflinguisticanalysiswhichreferstoananalysisofutterances（ortexts）intermsoftheinformationtheycontain.Theprincipleisthattheroleofeachutterancepartisevaluatedforitssemanticcontributiontothewhole.

SomeCzechlinguistsdevotedconsiderableattentiontoproblemsofanalysingsentencesfromafunctionalpointofview.Someimportantconceptsinthisviewinclude:

Theme–thepointofdepartureofasentence,whichisequallypresenttothespeakerandhearer;

Rheme--thegoalofdiscoursewhichpresentstheveryinformationthatistobeimpartedtothehearer;

Known/giveninformation--informationthatisnotnewtothereaderorhearer;

Newinformation--whatistobetransmittedtothereaderorhearer.

Thereforethesubject-predicatedistinctionisnotalwaysthesameastheme-rhemedistinction.

（a）

Sally

Subject

Theme

standsonthetable

Predicate

Rheme

（b）

Onthetablestands

Predicate

Theme

Sally

Subject

Rheme

Inresearchintotherelationbetweenstructureandfunction,J.Firbasdevelopedthenotionofcommunicativedynamism（CD）,whichismeanttomeasuretheamountofinformationanelementcarriesinasentence.ThedegreeofCDistheeffectcontributedbyalinguisticelement,forit“pushesthecommunicationforward”.Usuallyacontext-dependentelementcarriesalowerCDthanacontext-independentelement.Forexample,in“Ihavereadanicebook”,“anicebook”carriesahigherCDthan“I”andthefiniteverb.

FirbasdefinedFSPas“thedistributionofvariousdegreesofCD”.Thiscanbeexplainedas:

theinitialelementsofasequencecarrythelowestdegreeofCD,andwitheachstepforward,thedegreeofCDbecomesincrementaltilltheelementthatcarriesthehighest.

12.3TheLondonSchool

ThemanwhoturnedlinguisticsproperintoarecogniseddistinctacademicsubjectinBritainwasJ.R.Firth（1890–1960）,thefirstProfessorofGeneralLinguisticsinGreatBritainin1944.ThemajorityofuniversityteachersoflinguisticsinBritainweretrainedunderFirthandtheirworkreflectedFirth’sideas.

FirthwasinfluencedbytheanthropologistB.Malinowski（1884–1942）.Inturn,heinfluencedhisstudent,thewell-knownlinguistM.A.K.Halliday.Thethreemenallstressedtheimportanceofcontextofsituationandthesystemaspectoflanguage.Thus,LondonSchoolisalsoknownassystemiclinguisticsandfunctionallinguistics.

12.3.1Malinowski’stheories

Malinowskiregardslanguage“amodeofaction,ratherthanasacounterpartofthought”.Accordingtohim,themeaningofanutterancedoesnotcomefromtheideasofthewordscomprisingitbutfromitsrelationtothesituationalcontextinwhichtheutteranceoccurs.

Malinowskibelievedthatutterancesandsituationareboundupinextricablywitheachotherandthecontextofsituationisindispensablefortheunderstandingofthewords.Themeaningofspokenutterancescouldalwaysbedeterminedbythecontextofsituation.Hedistinguishedthreetypesofcontextofsituation:

（1）situationsinwhichspeechinterrelateswithbodilyactivity;

（2）narrativesituations;and（3）situationsinwhichspeechisusedtofillaspeechvacuum–phaticcommunion.

TwoimportantpointsonMalinowski’stheoryofmeaning:

First,heprescribedthedataforlinguisticstudies,holdingthatisolatedwordsareonlyimaginedlinguisticfacts,andtheyaretheproductsofadvancedanalyticalproceduresoflinguistics.Accordingtohim,thereallinguisticdataarethecompleteutterancesinactualusesoflanguage.Thesecondpointisthatwhenacertainsoundisusedintwodifferentsituations,itcannotbecalledoneword,buttwowordshavingthesamesound,orhomonyms.Hesaidthatinordertoassignmeaningtoasound,onehastostudythesituationsinwhichitisused.

12.3.2Firth’stheories

Herewe’lljusttalkaboutFirth’smajorcontributionstolinguistics.

Firthstartedthebranchcalledlinguisticsemantics.Heputforwardtheideathatinanalysingatypicalcontextofsituation,onehastotakeintoconsiderationboththesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontextofatext:

（1）Theinternalrelationsofthetextitself

（a）thesyntagmaticrelationsbetweentheelementsinthestructure;

（b）theparadigmaticrelationsbetweenunitsinthesystem.

（2）Theinternalrelationsofthecontextofsituation

（a）therelationsbetweentextandnon-linguisticelements,andthegeneraleffects;

（b） theanalyticalrelationsbetweenwords,partsofwords,phrasesandthespecialelementsofthecontextofsituation

FirthalsolistedamodelinhisPapersinLinguistics（1957）thatcoversboththesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontextofatext:

（1）therelevantfeaturesoftheparticipants:

persons,personalities

（a） theverbalactionoftheparticipants

（b） thenon-verbalactionoftheparticipants

（2）therelevanttopics,includingobjects,events,andnon-linguistic,non-humanevents

（3）theeffectsoftheverbalaction.

Firth’ssecondimportantcontributiontolinguisticsishismethodofprosodicanalysis（节律分析）,calledprosodicphonology.Firthpointedoutthatinactualspeech,itisnotphonemesthatmakeuptheparadigmaticrelations,butphonematicunits.Therearefewerfeaturesinphonematicunitsthaninphonemes,becausesomefeaturesarecommontophonemesofasyllableoraphrase（evenasentence）.Whenthesefeaturesareconsideredinsyntagmaticrelations,theyareallcalledprosodicunits.

Firthdidnotdefineprosodicunits.However,hisdiscussionindicatesthatprosodicunitsincludesuchfeaturesasst