LECTURE 3DWord格式.docx
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OFTHEORIGINANDPROGRESSOFLANGUAGE1
Itseemsprobablethatthosewordswhichdenotecertainsubstanceswhichexist,andwhichwecallsubstantives,wouldbeamongstthefirstcontrivedbypersonswhowereinventingalanguage.TwoSavageswhomettogetherandtookuptheirdwellinginthesameplacewouldverysoonendeavourtogetsignstodenotethoseobjectswhichmostfrequentlyoccurredandwithwhichtheyweremostconcerned.Thecavetheylodgedin,thetreefromwhencetheygottheirfood,orthefountainfromwhencetheydrank,wouldallsoonbedistinguishedbyparticularnames,|astheywouldhavefrequentoccasiontomaketheirthoughtsabouttheseknowntoaoneanother,andwouldbymutualconsentagreeoncertainsignswherebythismightbeaccomplished.
Afterwardswhentheymetwithothertrees,caves,andfountainsconcerningwhichtheywouldhaveoccasiontoconverse,theywouldbnaturallygivethesamenametothemastheyhadbeforegiventootherobjectsofthesamekind.Theassociationofideasbetwixtthecaves,trees,etc.andthewordstheyhaddenotedthembywouldnaturallysuggestthatthosethingswhichwereofthesamesortmightbedenoted|cbythesamewords.Thusitmightperhapsbethatthosewordswhichorigin[in]allysignifyedsingulardobjectscametobeSpecialnamestocertainclassesofthings.[AsourSavagesmadefartheradvancestheywouldhaveoccasionnotonlyfornamestotheseverallsubstancesnearthembutalsoforwordstoexpresstherelationsbetwixtthoseseverallobjects.]e
Thesenameshoweverastheobjectsmultipliedwouldnotbesufficienttodistinguishthemaccuratelyfromoneanother:
theywouldthereforebenecessitatedtohaverecoursetotheirpeculiarrelationsorqualities.Thesearecommonlyexpressedbyprepositionsoradjectives.|ThisiswhatchieflydifficultsMrRousseay2towit,toexplainhowgenerallnameswere1stformed,astheyrequireabstractthoughtandwhatiscalledgenerallization,beforetheycanbeformdaccordingtohiswayofthinking:
Whichhethinksme[a]natfirsthardlycapableof.f|Thustheymightexpressacertaintreebysayingthetreeabovethecave.Butthoseexpressedbyprepositionswouldnotgoanygreatlength:
theywouldthencallinthat[the]oftheadjectives,andthustheymightsay,theGreentree,todenoteonethatwasGreenfromonethatwasnot.Theinventionofadjectiveswouldhaverequiredamuchgreaterdegreeofexertionthanthatofsubstantives,forthesefollowingreasons.Thequalitydenotedbyanadjectiveisneverseenintheabstract,butisalwaysconcretedwithsomesubstanceorother,andthewordsignifyingsuchaqualitymustbeformed|fromitbyagooddealofabstractgreflection;
besidesthisqualityhisnotseeninanygenerallsetofthings,thoitisagenerallquality,butmustbeatfirstformedfromsomesingularobject.Forthisreasonwemayimaginethoseadjectiveswouldbeformedbeforeanyofthesubstantivesdenotingtheabstract[i]qualitiesofthosebodiestowhichtheadjectivesareapplied.ThusGreenwouldbeformedbeforeGreeness,asthequalitythoabstractinitselfisseldomiconsideredbutwhenconcretedwithsomesubstancesrealyexistingandperceivedinsomesingularonebeforeus,whereasthequalityabstractedfromanybodyisneverseen|butisonlyformedbyabstractionandgeneralizationfromthosebodieswheretheyarefound.Itisalsonecessarybeforesuchadjectivesbeformedthatthosewhoformthemhaveseenotherthingsofthesamekindwhichhavethemnot.ThusthewordGreenifitwasoriginallyformedfromthecolourofatreewouldnothavebeenformediftherewerenotreesofadifferentcolour.Butwhentherewereothertreesfoundofanothercolour,theymightcallsuchatree,agreentree;
andfromthenceothertrees,andafterwardsotherthingsofthatcolourmightget|appellation.Fromthencetoo,thequalityofgreenesswouldatlengthbeformedbyfartherabstraction.
Whenthereissomuchabstractionrequiredtoformthoseadjectivesthatdenotecolours,whicharethemostsimpleofall,itisplaintherewouldbejmuchgreaterinformingmorecomplexandgeneralones.
Butwhateverdifficultytheremightbeintheformationofadjectives,theremustbestillmoreinformingprepositions.Forthatwhichissignifiedbythemisnotfoundinanyoneparticularsetofthingsbutiscommontoallthoseinacertainrelation.Thusabovedenotestherelation|ofsuperiority,belowthatofinferiority,withregardtoanythinginthatrelation.Itisnotconcretedwithanyotherthingbutisofitselforiginallyabstract.
Wemaysayagreentree,oranythingelseisgreen,butaboveisconnectedwiththerelationthattwothingsbeartooneanother.Ithappenstoothatthoseprepositionswhichnecessarilymostfrequentlyoccurarethosethataremostabstractedandmetaphysicall.ThereisnoneofwhichsuchfrequentuseismadeasoftheprepositionOf;
whichatthesametimeisthemostabstractofthewholenumberof|themall.Itdenotesknoparticularrelationbetwixtthethingsitconnectsbutbarelysignifiesthatthereisarelation.AndifweweretoaskanordinarymanwhathemeantbythewordOfhemightbeallowedatleastaweaktoconsiderofit.Wemayseethegenerallsignificationofitfromthevariousandconteraryrelationsitisusedtoexpressasbetwixtthewholeanditslparts.Thuswemaysaythesonofthefather<
orthefather>
oftheson;
thefirtreeoftheforestortheforestofthefirtrees:
Otherprepositionscannotbeusedsogenerally,whenwesaythetreeabovethecaveandthecaveabovethetree,|butthiscannotbesaidwithregardtothesamething.
Whensuchisthedifficultyofformingtheseprepositions,whicharesoveryrequisite,itwasnaturallforthecontriversoflanguage,whomwearenottosupposeveryabstractphilosophers,wouldcontrivesomemethodtomanswerthesepurposesbyamoreeasymethod.Thatwhichwasmostnaturallandobviousandthatwhichwefindwasthecaseinalltheprimitiveandsimplelanguages,istoexpressnbyvariousmodificationsofthesamewordwhatwouldotherwiserequireapreposition.Thisthey|havedonebyvaryingtheterminationofthesubstantive;
thedifferentprepositionswhoseplacewasthussuppliedgaveoccasiontothedifferen<
t>
casesandaccordingasfewerormoreofthemwerethussuppliedthecaseswouldbemoreorlessinnumberindifferentlanguages,insome5,6orinothersten.
TheagreablenessofthesamesoundrepeatedorloveofRythmeomadethemsuittheiradjectivestotheterminationsofthesuitablesubstantivesandhenceitcametopassthatalltheadjectivesweredeclinedinthesamemannerasthesubstantives,thothesignificationisnowayaltered;
as,Malusp,Mali,Malorum,Malis|etc.,allsignifyevilandarevariedonlytomakethemsuitthesubstantiv<
e>
s,asEquus,Equi,Equorum,Equisetc.
Asallanimallsareofsomesexandotherthingsofnoneanditwasrequisitetohaveadistinctioninthisrespect,andthequalityintheabstractbeingnoteasilycomprehended,theyrectifiedthisbymakinganothersortofachangeinthenounofonesex:
henceEquus,Equa:
andasthoseofanotherqualityhadnosextheyformedhereanothersortwhichdenotedthoseofneitheroftheothertwoqualities.Forthesamereasonastheysuitedtheadjectivestothedeclensionofcasessoalso|theywouldtothatofgender,andhenceEquusbonus,Equabona,pratumbonum.
Asmoreobjectsthanoneofthesamesortoccurreditwasnecessarytodistinguishbetwixtthesingularpersonandthosecaseswherethereweremorethan<
one>
together;
andasabstractnumbersarealsoofdifficultcomprehensiontheyherelikewiseinventedanothervariationtodenotenumber,hencethesingular,duallandpluralnumber.{TheoriginallanguageshavealltheduallastheHebrewandSclavonic.}Tothisde<
c>
lensionorvarietyalsotheyaccomodatedtheiradjectivesforthesamereasonthatwebeforementi|oned.HencecameEquus,Equi,andνηρ,νερε,νερες,andtothesetheadjectives,bonus,boni,andγαθος,γαθωγαθοι.
Hencewemayseehowcomplexttheirdeclensionsmusthavebecome.Thesubstantivenounsdeclinedthro5casesin3numberswillhave15varieties,andtheadjectiveshavingbesides3genderswillhave45.
Besidesthesevariouspartstheywouldhaveoccasionforsomewordstodescribeorexpresscertainactions.Everythingwesayiseitheraffirmingordenyingsomethingandtodothissomeother|mastersortofwordwasnecessaryandthiswasthereasonoftheinventionofverbs,forwithoutnoonethingcouldbeexpressed.Henceprobablyverbsoftheimpersonallformwouldbethefirstinventedofany,astheywouldexpressawholesentimentorassertioninthisway.SoPluit,Ningitarecompleatassertions.ThesavageswesupposedtogethermightforinstanceusethewordvenittoexpressthecomingofsometerribleanimallasaLion,whichtheyexpressedcompleatlyinoneword.
Afterwardsotherbeastscomingtheywouldnaturallyusethesame|wordtogivethealarm.Sothiswordwouldcometosignifysometerriblebeast,thenanyfrightfullobjectandlast<
l>
yanyapproachintheabstract.Forthesamereasonsastheyinventednumberandpersoninnounstheywouldintheverbsasqagreaterorlessnumbermightbecoming.Accordingtothetimedifferentvariationswouldalsobemade.{Theymightindeedhaveusedthesamewordfordifferenttenseshadtheyknownthepronouns,butthesewerenotinventedintheearlytimeswearetalkingof,astooabstract.Thedifferentwordsmadefordifferentthingsofthesameoriginisliketheformingoftheletters.Thefirstwriterwouldprobablyuseadifferentrcharacterforeachswordbutthiswould