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（情感功能）:
toexpressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.
⑤Phaticcommunion（寒暄交流）:
tousesmallandmeaninglessexpressionstoestablishacomfortablerelationshipormaintainsocialcontactbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.（health,weather）
⑥
Recreationalfunction（娱乐）:
theuseoflanguageforsheerjoy.（lyrics,poetry）
⑦Metalingualfunction（元语言功能）:
totalkaboutlanguageitself.
4.Whatislinguistics?
Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedas
thescientificstudyoflanguage.
5.Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics
Descriptive&
prescriptive
Synchronic&
diachronic
Langue&
parole
Competence&
performance
6.Descriptive（描写/述性）—describeandanalyzelinguisticfactsorthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse（modernlinguistic）
Prescriptive（规定性）—laydownrulesfor
“correctandstandard”
linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage（traditionalgrammar:
“neveruseadoublenegative”）
7.Synchronicstudy
（共时）—descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime（modernlinguistics）
Diachronicstudy（历时）—
descriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime（historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime）
第四章
1．WhatisSyntax
（句法）?
Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningtheways
differentconstituents
arecombinedtoform
sentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则
2．FourApproaches:
Thetraditionalapproach传统语言观
（Partsofspeech、SyntacticFunction不考、Category范畴、Concordandgovernment一致关系和支配关系）、Thestructuralapproach结构语言观、Thegenerativeapproach、Thefunctionalapproach功能语言观
3．Thetraditionalgrammarregardssentencesas
asequenceofwords
soitpaysgreatattentiontothestudyof
words
suchastheclassificationofwordsintermsof
partsofspeech
theidentificationoffunctionofwordsintermsof
subject,predicate
etc.
4.Partsofspeech
Traditionalgrammardefines8partsofspeech:
nouns,verbs,pronouns,adjectives,adverbs,prepositions,conjunctionsandinterjections.
5．Theterm
Category范畴
insomeapproachesreferstowordclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能
eg.Noun,Verb,Subject,Predicate.Morespecifically,itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:
thecategoriesofthenoun名词的范畴,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability（case）;
thecategoriesoftheverb动词的范畴:
tense,aspect,voice,etc.
6．Number
ismostlyacategoryofthenounandpronoun名词和不可数名词.
Twotermsofnumberinnouns:
singularandplural单数和复数
Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs
7.Gender
isalsomostlyacategoryofthenounandpronoun.
InEnglish,thegenderdistinctionsareonthewholenatural,determinedbythebiologicalgenderofthecreature.
8.Case
isusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系
InEnglish,pronounshavethreecasesofnominative主格,accusative受格,andgenitive与格.Nounshavetwoofgeneralandgenitive所有格
InEnglish,thecaseofnounisrealisedinthreechannels:
（a）inflection（b）followingapreposition（c）wordorder
9.Tense时态:
theabsolutelocationofaneventoractionontime.Itismarkedbyaninflectionoftheverb.Asaresult,thereareonlytwotensesrecognizednow:
pastandpresent.
Sincethefuturetimedoesnotinvolveanyinflectionoftheverb,wedonotrefertoa“futuretense”,eventhoughinmanydifferentwayswecantalkaboutthefuture.
10.Aspect体:
Ithasnothingwithtime,andittellsuswhetheranactionisongoingorcompleted.
Perfective（完成体）
andImperfective（进行体）
PerfectiveandProgressive（inEnglish）
11.Voice语态:
describetherelationshipbetweenverbandsubject
Passive被动语态
andactive主动语态
12.Concordandgovernment
①Concord
（一致关系）
refersto
agreement
betweenwords,especiallybetweena
verb
andthe
subject
ofasentence.
②Government
（支配关系）
isatypeofgrammaticalrelationshipbetweentwoormoreelementsinasentence.
Intraditionalgrammar,thetermgovernmenthastypicallybeenusedtorefertotherelationshipbetween
verbsandnouns
orbetween
prepositionsandnouns.
13.TheStructuralApproach
，由FerdinanddeSaussure提出
14.SyntacticRelations：
Positionalrelations位置关系、Relationsofsubstitutability替代关系、Relationsofco-occurrence同现关系
15.Immediateconstituent（直接成分）
isanymeaningfulconstituentatthefirststepinananalysis.
16.An
endocentricconstruction
（向心结构）
isaconstructionthatcontains:
1）a
head,whichisthesingleobligatoryelementintheconstruction;
2）oneormore
optionalelements
subordinatetothehead.
17.theme
（主位）
referstotheknowninformationwhichisnotnewtothereaderorlistener
Rheme
（述位）
referstotheinformationthatisnew.Thenewinformationiswhatistobetransmittedtothereaderorlistener
ThelinguistsofthePragueschoolbelievedthatsentencemaybeanalyzedfromthe
functional
sideaswellasthe
grammatical
side.
subject,predicate（grammaticalside）
theme,rheme
（functionalside）
第五章
1.
WhatisSemantics?
Semanticsisthestudyofthemeaningofwords,phrasesandsentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科
2．GeoffreyLeech利奇Seventypesofmeaning7种意义类型:
①Conceptualmeaning概念意义
②Connotativemeaning内涵意义
③Socialmeaning社会意义
④Affectivemeaning
感情意义
AssociativeMeaning联想意义（②——⑥）
⑤Reflectedmeaning反射意义
⑥Collocativemeaning搭配意义
⑦Thematicmeaning主位意义
3.Conceptualmeaning
（概念意义）
isalsocalled“denotative”（外延义）anditisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitrefersto.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系
Conceptualmeaningis
meaninggiveninthedictionary.
4.Associativemeaning
（联想意义）
isthetotalofallthemeaningsapersonthinksofwhentheyheartheword
Associativemeaningisthemeaningwhichawordsuggestsorimplies.
5.Thematicmeaning（主位意义）
is
“whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的
6.
TheReferentialTheory（指称理论）：
TheReferentialTheory
TheSemanticTriangle
SenseandReference
7.Thereferentialtheory
指称理论
isthetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论
8.Thesemantictriangle语意三角
isthe
indirect
relationbetweenawordandathingitreferstoanditismediatedby
concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的
9.Sense
（涵义）isasetofpropertiespossessedbyaname.
10.Reference
（指称）isthesymbolicrelationshipthatalinguisticexpressionhaswiththeconcreteobject.
11.The
sense
ofanexpressionisthethoughtitexpresses,whileits
reference
istheobjectitrepresents
Everywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.
12.
SenseRelations涵义关系
①Synonymy（同义关系）
②Antonymy（反义关系）
（Gradable、Complementary、Converse）
③Hyponymy（上下义关系）
13.Buttotalsynonymyisrare.Theymaydifferin
style,
connotations
and
dialect.
14.Gradableantonymy（等级反义关系）
、Complementaryantonymy（互补反义关系）、Converseantonymy（反向反义关系）
15.Componentialanalysis
isanapproachtothestudyofmeaningwhichanalysesawordintoasetof
meaningcomponents.
16.SentenceMeaning
17.
Senserelationsbetweensentences
Synonymity（同义）
a.Hewasabachelorallhislife.
b.Henevermarriedallhisboy.
Sentencesaandbareinasynonymousrelationship:
thetruthofonesentencenecessarilyimpliesthetruthofanothersentence
Inconsistency
（矛盾）
a.ElizabethIIisQueenofEngland.
b.ElizabethIIisaman.
Sentencesaandbareinarelationshipofcontradiction:
thetruthofonesentencenecessarilyimpliesthefalsenessofanothersentence.
Entailment（蕴涵）
a.Hemarriedablondeheiress.
b.Hemarriedablonde.
Entailmentreferstoakindofmeaninginclusion.Ifxentailsy,themeaningofxisincludediny.
④
Presupposition
（前提预设）
Itiswhataspeakerorwriterassumesthatthereceiverofthemessagealreadyknows.
⑤Contradiction
⑥Semanticanomaly
（语义反常）
18.Anintegratedtheory
﹡Compositionality（组合性原则）：
themeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningoftheconstituentwordsandthewaytheyarecombined.
﹡Thissemantictheoryistheintegrationofsyntaxandsemantics
﹡Theirbasicideaisthatasemantictheoryconsistsoftwoparts:
adictionary
asetofprojectionrules
﹡Thedictionaryprovidesthegrammaticalclassificationandsemanticinformationofwords
﹡Theprojectionrulesareresponsibleforcombiningthemeaningsofwordstogether.
19.Logicalsemantics（逻辑语义学）
﹡Aproposition（命题）iswhatistobeexpressedbyadeclarativesentencewhenthatsentenceisutteredtomakeastatement.
﹡Itisthebasicmeaningwhichasentenceexpress.
﹡Averyimportantpropertyofthepropositionisthatithasatruthvalue.
第七章
1.LanguageandCulture：
①Sapir-WhorfHypothesis②EvidenceGivenbyWhorf
③ImplicationofSWH
④Relationbetwe
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