课程独自打保龄球英文读书笔记Word文件下载.docx
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《BowlingAlone》全书分为五个部分,第一部分讲美国公民参与的状况和社会资本之间的关系,在“思考美国社会变化”的主题之下,指出20世纪后半期是美国公民参与和社会资本逐步衰减的时期。
所谓“社会资本”,是指社会上个人之间的相互联系——社会关系网络和有其产生的互惠互利和互相信赖的规范。
他认为,作为社会关系的社会资本与公民美德,互惠信任,社会合作,集体归属感和集体行动有着密切联系:
社会关系对个人和群体的生产力也会产生影响;
社会资本的性质决定了社会信任的范围,社会合作的质量,公民参与的可能性,进而影响民主制度的绩效。
社会资本具有不同的类型:
连接性社会资本,粘合性社会资本,兼容性社会资本,排他性社会资本。
第二部分是讲公民参与和社会资本的变化趋势。
Putnam讨论了美国社会网络和联系在20世纪晚期出现的衰减,描绘了美国人政治参与,公民参与,宗教参与,工作联系,社会联系,志愿活动和慈善活动,社会信任出现的变化趋势。
同时也考察了“小团体活动,社会运动与网络”这样的新兴的社会组织形式。
他认为“在20世纪的前三分之二,一股强大的力量促使美国人更加深入的参与到社区活动里,不过就在几十年前,一股静悄悄的潮流毫无预警的逆转了这个浪头。
在没有收到任何统治的情况下,我们在这个世纪的后三分之一渐渐疏离了亲友和社区生活。
”第三部分是在对第二部分所揭示的社会资本衰减趋势的可能解释。
第四部分是公民参与和社会资本衰减会导致怎样的后果。
第五部分是Putnam针对公民参与
和社会资本衰减这一问题提出的政策建议。
我选取了第二部分中的“公民参与”进行阅读。
Americansofallages,allstationsinlife,andalltypesofdispositionareforeverformingassociations……Nothing,inmyview,isdeservesmoreattentionthantheintellectualandmoralassociationsinAmerica.
——Tocqueville
ThesignificantfeatureofAmericans’isthattheyaremorelikelytobeinvolvedinvoluntary
associationsthanarecitizensofmostothernations;
andtheyhavegreatcreativityinestablishingorganizations——theycreateamountsoforganizationsfromnationtolocal,fromserioustointeresting,andsoon.AsTocquevillesaid,theorganizationshaveinfiltratedtheAmericans’lifeeveryaspect.Generallyspeaking,thissamearrayoforganizationalaffiliationshascharacterized
Americanssinceatleast1905s.
One.Inthefirstglance
Officialmembershipinformalorganizationsisonlyonefacetofsocialcapital,butitisusuallyregardedasausefulbarometerofcommunityinvolvement.SowhatcanwelearnfromorganizationalrecordsandsocialsurveysaboutAmericans’participationintheorganizedlifeoftheircommunities?
美国人自发的社团总共有三种:
一是基于社区的社团,而是基于教会的社团,三是基于
职业的社团。
在第三章的“公民参与”一节,主要讲的是在“基于社区的社团”中,美国人的社
团参与有何变化。
Becauseoftheimpressiveincreaseinthesheernumberofvoluntaryassociations,eventakingaccountoftheincreaseinpopulationduringthisperiod,thenumberofnationalorganizationsper
capitalhasincreasedbynearlytwo-thirdsoverthelastthreedecades,excitedbythisfact,some
observersspeakthatperhapstoohastilyofaparticipationrevolutioninAmericanpoliticsandsociety.Andmoregroupsspeakingonbehalfofevermorecategoriesofcitizens.
Two.Infact——1960~1990
Organizationsthatdon’tinvolvetheirmembersdirectlyincommunity-basedactivity:
1.overthequartercenturythenumberofvoluntaryassociationsroughlytripled,buttheaverage
membershipseemstoberoughlyone-tenthaslarge——moregroups,butmostofthemmuch
smaller.theorganizationaleruptionbetweenthe1960sandthe1990srepresenteda
proliferationofletterheads,notaboomofgrassrootsparticipation.
2.Andrevealingistheincreasinggeographicconcentrationofnationalheadquarters.For
membershiporganizationswithlocalchaptersandsubstantialgrassrootsactivity,theyare
headquarterednearimportantconcentrationsoftheirmembers;
Forthenation’slargest
organizations,theyareheadquarterednearWashington——thepoliticalconcentration.
Theproliferatingneworganizationsareprofessionallystaffedadvocacyorganizations,notmember-centered,locallybasedassociations.Thenewergroupsfocusonexpressingpolicyviewsinthenationalpoliticaldebate,notonprovidingregularconnectionamongindividualmembersatthegrassroots.
Thenewergroupsmostlybelongtothemailinglistorganizations,whichmeansmovingapen,notmakingameeting.Andthesenewmass-membershiporganizationsareplainlyofgrowingpoliticalimportancewhiletheydemandslittleofitsmembers’energiesandcontributeslittletotheirsocialcapital.Forexample,theAARP.ThenationaladministratorsofsuchorganizationsareamongthemostfearedlobbyistsinWashington,inlargepartbecauseoftheirmassivemailinglist.Ironically,groupinvolvementwithgovernmenthasexplodedatthesametimethatcitizeninvolvementwithbothgovernmentandgroupshasdiminished.
Thevigoroftheneworganizations,thoughtheyarelarge,proliferating,andpowerful(会员
数量等),isanunreliableguidetothevitalityofsocialconnectednessandcivicengagementinAmericancommunities.
Severalillustrationsmayclarify:
1)Encyclopediaofassociations
Explosivegrowthoforganizationsclaimingtospeakonbehalfofveteranscoincidedwithdeclininginvolvementbyveterans.
2)Environmentorganizations
EnvironmentDefenseFund(EDF)——mail-ordermembership
Trendsinnumbersofvoluntaryassociationsnationwidearenotareliableguidetotrendsinsocialcapital,especiallyforassociationsthatlackastructureoflocalchaptersinwhichmemberscanactuallyparticipate.
对于全国范围的自愿社团来说,其会员数量的趋势并不是反映社会资本发展趋势的一个
可靠指标,尤其是那些缺乏地方分部体制以至于会员并不能真正参与的组织。
Sowhatevidencecanwelearnfromorganizationsthatdoinvolvetheirmembersdirectlyincommunity-basedactivity?
Organizationsthatdoinvolvetheirmembersdirectlyincommunity-basedactivity:
FormostofthetwentiescenturygrowingnumbersofAmericanswereinvolvedinsuchchapter-basedassociations.
1930s,thisperiodofhistoryunderlinestheeffectsofacuteeconomicdistressoncivicengagement.
1940s,aftertheWorldWarII,themassiveoutpouringofpatriotismandcollectivesolidaritywereredirectedintocommunitylife.thetwodecadesfollowing1945witnessedoneofthemostvital
periodsofcommunityinvolvementinAmericanhistory.
Bythelate1950s,theburstofcommunityinvolvementbegantotailoff,eventhoughabsolutemembershipcontinuedtoriseforawhile.
Bythelate1960sand1970s,membershipgrowthbegantofallfurtherbehindpopulationgrowth.
Onaverage,acrossalltheseorganizations,membershipratespeakedintheearly1960s,andbegantheperiodofsustaineddeclineby1969.Buttheseaverageconcealsomeimportantdifferencesamongtheexperienceofthevariousorganizations,suchastheeffectsoftheGreatDepressionvariedfromorganizationtoorganization.Theseorganizationalpeculiaritiesremindusthatbehindeachofthesemembershipdeclinesarescoresofindividualtalesofleadershipsuccessandfailure,organizationaltenacityandstrategicblunders,andthevicissitudesofsociallifeandpolitics.
Forexample,theParent-TeacherAssociation(PTA).
Membershipdeclinedfrom1960sto1990sinfamilieswithchildrenundereighteen.ButsomepartofthedeclineinratesofmembershipinPTAisanopticalillusion.Parentalinvolvementinlocalschoolserviceorganizations(notallofwhichareaffiliatedwiththenationalParent-TeacherAssociations)didnotfallasrapidlyasmembershipinPTA-affiliatedgroups.
ThedropofthemembershipinPTAmaynothavemarkedthewithdrawalofsouthernparentsfromtheorganizationallifeoflocalschools.
Thecommonfeatureacrosstheverydiverseorganizations——rapidgrowthtothe1960s,
abruptlyhalted,followedbyrapiddecline——isasignificantpieceinthemosaicofevidenceon
changingcivicinvolvementinAmericancommunities.
Intwoimportantrespects,however,membershipfiguresforindividualorganizationsarean
uncertainguidetotrendsinAmericans’involvementinvoluntaryassociations.
会员数并不能作为美国人自愿参加社团趋势的一个准确指标。
理由有以下两点:
First,thepopularityofspecificgroupsmaywaxandwanequiteindependentlyofthegenerallevelofcommunityengagement.
Second,formal“card-carrying”membershipmaynotaccuratelyreflectactualinvolvementin
communityactivities.Whatreallymattersfromthepointofviewofsocialcapitalandcivicengagementisnotmerelynominalmembership,butactiveandinvolvedmembership.
一些人引用50年代初到70年代初所进行的全国性调查数据,发现这一时期全国所有组
织的会员都稳定增长,但是一些学者却质疑:
调查中措辞运用的改变可能影响调查结论。
即:
Subtleshiftsinthelensofoursocialtime-lapsecameramayhavesufficientlyblurredthesuccessiveimagesthatwecannotbesureaboutthetrendsduringthe1950sand1960s.
在Michigan-NIMH的研究中,他们也发现“美国成年人融入社会趋于下降”。
OneoftheMichigan-NIMHstudy’scentralfindingswasa“reducedintegrationofAmerican
adultsintothesocialstructure.”Nomatterwithfriendsandrelatives,organizationalmemberships,orchurchattendance,theyalldeclined.ThebestavailablesurveyevidenceisconsistentwiththeorganizationalrecordthatmembershipinvoluntaryassociationsamongordinaryAmericansdeclinedmodestlybetweenthemid-1950sandthemid-1970s.
Fortheyearsafterthemid-1970s,thesurveyevidencebecomessubstantiallyricher:
TheGeneralSocialSurvey(GSS),theRoperSocialandPoliticalTrendsarchive,andtheDDBNeedhamLifeStylearchive.
(1)OrganizationalRecord
TheGSSprovidesthemostcomprehensivemeasureoftrendsinAmericans’formalmembershipinmanydifferenttypesofgroups.Accordingthedata,thenetdeclineinformalorganizationalmembershipismodestatbest.However,thisambiguousconclusionisdrasticallyalteredwhenweexamineevidenceonmoreactiveformsofparticipationthanmerecard-carryingmembership.Becauseoftheactivemembersinmostvoluntaryassociationsarecajoledintoplayingsomeleadershiproleintheorganization.,wecanusetheactivemembers’participationto
evaluatethecivicparticipation.FromtheFigure10,wegetthatactiveinvolvementincommunityorganizationsinthiscountryfellby45percent.Bythismeasure,atleast,nearlyhalfofAmerica’scivicinfrastructurewasobliteratedinbarelyadecade.
(2)Sur