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linguistics

Chapter1Invitationstolinguistics

1.Whystudylanguageandlearnlinguistics?

Doyouagreeornotagreewiththefollowingviews?

Whyorwhynot?

1)languageisameansofcommunication.

2)Languagehasaform-meaningcorrespondence.

3)EnglishismoredifficulttolearnthanChinese.

4)Languageoperatesbyrules.

5)Everyonespeaksadialect.

6)Languagesslowlychange.

7)Languagesareintimatelyrelatedtothesocietiesandindividualswhousethem,

Examples:

1)A(anAmerican):

Hello!

B(aCantonese):

黑佬。

2)你家的旺才爱喝咕噜噜。

/狗—go;cowhide—靠害;

seafood---?

3)小李和小范在谈论小刘时,小刘来了。

小李说:

“说曹操曹操就到。

”请选择谁到了:

A.小李B.小刘C.小范D.曹操

4)大山:

我刚到北京时发现你们中国人很自大!

姜昆:

何以见得?

大山:

因为我在很多办公大楼上看到“中国人民很(银)行”、“中国农业很(银)行”、

“中国工商很(银)行”、“中国建设很(银)行”等等,反正什么都行!

姜昆:

……!

5)whoamI?

/我是谁?

6)坐在船上看郊区,越看越美丽。

7)堂客/贱内—夫人/姨太—太太—爱人—老婆

8)五讲四美三热爱/邓论/江选(三个代表)/胡说(三为学说)

12Whatislanguage?

Togivethebarestofdefinition,languageismeansofverbalcommunication.Languageplaysacentralroleinourlivesasindividualsandsocialbeings.Ifwearenotfullyawareofthenatureandmechanismofourlanguage,wewillbeignorantofwhatconstitutesouressentialhumanity.

13Designfeaturesoflanguage(语言的本质特征)

131Arbitrariness(任意性特征)

Itreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.(discussedfirstbySaussure).Noconnectionwillbeestablishedbetweenthesoundanditsmeaning.

Examples:

1)/buk/---shu;I—哀;water---H2O---shui(水);sitdown,please.—锡啖先啦!

2)哀,哀,哀,我是扮演普金。

3)I,I,IwasborninBeijing.

Someexceptions(onomatopoeia):

4)cuckoo/bang/neigh/mew

5)泉水叮咚,泉水叮咚,泉水叮咚响。

Accordingtosystemic-functionalistsandAmericanfunctionalists,languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel.

Example:

不怕辣/怕不辣/辣不怕。

132Duality(二重性):

Sounds>words>sentences>texts

By“Duality”ismeantthepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.Insimplewords,Dualityreferstothefactthatlanguageisorganizedintermsoftwolevelsofstructures:

thelowerstructure---elementswithoutmeaning,suchas“f,o,g,d”,buttheycanbeusedtoformsomemeaningfulwords:

“fog,dog,god”andsoon.

Higherstructure---infinitenumberofmeaningfulunitswhicharecomposedofelementsoflowerlevel,suchas‘–ly,-ism’etc.So,wecanhavesuchasentence“Godblessesthelovelydoginthefog”.

133Creativity(创造性)

Itmeanswecanutilizelimitedlinguisticrulestoproduceorunderstandinfinitemeaningfulsentences:

eg.S+V+O;S—NP+VP.eg.Thestudentslearnlinguistics.

134Displacement(移位性)

Itmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutthingsrealorimagedinthepast,presentandfuture.

Example:

carrycoalstoNewcastle/情人眼里出西施。

15.Functionsoflanguage

Question:

1)WhatisJakoson`sviewaboutthe“functionsoflanguage”?

2)WhatisHallidayantheoryonlanguage?

151Informative(信息功能)

languagecanbeusedtopassinformationandgiveinformation.

Example:

1)昨晚广州城雷雨交加,一女大学生在二沙岛被雷电击中身亡!

2)Twins成员被偷拍一事在香港闹得满城风雨。

3)山雨欲来风满楼。

4)经历了那么多的风风雨雨,这算得了什么?

5)Windy,areyouOK?

Rainyiswaitingforyou!

152.Interpersonalfunction(人际功能)

Thisfunctionisconcernedwithinteractionbetweentheaddresserandaddresseeinthediscoursesituationandtheaddresser`sattitudetowardwhathespeaksorwritesabout.

Example:

1)老蒋/介石兄/蒋校长/蒋中正/蒋介石/蒋家王朝;姓蒋的/honey/打令

Attachedtotheinterpersonalfunctionoflanguageisitsfunctionoftheexpressionofidentity.

Example:

1)TMD,阿扁真NB!

—A钱A到机要费里啦!

2)球场响起了“Diu裁判/雄起”的声音。

/海边岛?

海里岛!

3)天天都吃面,只吃一点点。

4)—你是哪里人?

—我是fu北人。

注:

代词的使用可反映人际关系的亲疏,如:

4)Weareconvincedthatthisbooksuppliesalong-feltwant.

5)Maywegonow,sir?

6)Shallwesittogether,Mary?

8)Now,wemustbeabravegirlandstopcrying.

9)一位女客人来访,来访结束后,男主人恰恰有事外出,便和女客人一起离开。

男主人(对其妻):

我们走了。

女主人(勃然大怒):

哪里去?

153.Performative(行事功能)

languagecanbeusedtodothingsorperformactions.

Examples:

(命题内容相同的句子分别实施五种不同的以言行事行为)

1)WillJohnleavetheroom?

(询问)

2)Johnwillleavetheroom.(预测)

3)John,willleavetheroom.(请求或命令)

4)WouldthatJohnlefttheroom.(愿望)

5)IfJohnwillleavetheroom.,Iwillleavealso.(假设)

154.Emotivefunction(感情功能)

Languagecanbeusedtoexpressone`semotion.

Example:

1)USPresidentcandidate:

InordertoprovidemorejobsforAmericansinthefollowingyears,GeorgeW.Bushneedstochangeanotherjobin2004….

2)据说我省某前任省长到梅州视察雁南飞茶园后,说的第一句话是“真他妈的漂亮!

155.Phaticcommunion(交感性谈话)

Itreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage,whichcanhelpdefineandmaintaininterpersonalrelations.

Example:

1)(在洗手间)A:

你也在这?

B:

是啊。

2)A:

好久不见,发福啦!

B:

是吗?

你身材还是这么FIT!

156.Recreationalfunction(娱乐性功能)

Languagecanbeusedforentertainment,eg.

1)(刘三姐):

什么水面打跟斗咧?

…….

2)(曾志伟):

TVB的B呀!

B仔个仔呀…….

Practice:

Wearehere./语言学的学…

157.Metalingualfunction(元语言功能)

Itreferstothefactthatlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself.Wehave“metalinguage”(纯理语言),suchas“finiteverb,independentclause,地etc.

16.Whatislinguistics?

Linguisticsisusuallydefinedasthescienceoflanguageor,alternatively,asthescientificstudyoflanguage.

17.Mainbranchesoflinguistics

171.Phonetics(语音学)----Itstudiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatishowspeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,wordsandconnectedspeech,etc.

172.Phonogy(音系学)----Itstudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.

173.Morphology(形态学)---Itstudiestheinternalorganizationofwordsandtheminimalunitsofmeaning–morphemes(语素)andword-formationprocesses.

174.Syntax(句法学)----ItisaboutprinciplesofformingandunderstandingcorrectEnglishsentences,eg.Chinesefurcoat

175.Semantics(语义学)---Itexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.

176.Pragmatics(语用学)----Itisthestudyofmeaningincontext.

18.Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics

181.Descriptivevs.prescriptive(描写式和规定式)

“Tosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtherulestowhichthemembersofalanguage-communityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness.”

Example:

Thetwoboyslookedatoneanothersuspiciously.

182.SynchronicVSDiachronic(共时和历时)

Asynchronicdescriptiontakesafixedinstantasitspointofobservation.Saussurse`sDiachroniclinguisticsisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.

Question:

《康熙大词典》是共时还是历时词典?

183.LangueVSParole(语言和言语)

Langue---Itreferstothelanguagesystemsharedbyacommunityofspeakers,andisusuallycontrastedwithparole,whichistheconcreteactofspeakinginactualsituationsbyanindividualspeaker.

184.CompetenceVSperformance

Competence----Atermusedinlinguistics,andesp.inGenerativeGrammar,torefertoaperson`sknowledgeofthislanguage,thesystemofruleswhichhehasmasteredsothatheisabletoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentences,andtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities,It`sanidealizedconceptionoflanguage,whichisseenasinoppositiontothenotionofperformance,thespecificutterancesofspeech.

Performance---Itreferstolanguageseenasasetofspecificutterancesproducedbynative-speakerasencounteredinacorpus.Theutterancesofperformancewillcontainfeaturesirrelevanttotheabstractrulesystem,suchashesitationsandunfinishedstructures,arisingfromthevariouspsychologicalandsocialdifficultiesactinguponthespeaker(e.g,lapsesofmemory,orbiologicallimitations,suchaspausesbeingintroducedthroughtheneedtobreathe).

Example:

(某位高级领导开会发言)这个,这个,这个,…..饱受酒精考验的油袖干部永睡不醒…..

Chapter2SpeechSounds

21.Speechproductionandperception

Thestudyofsoundsisdividedintothreemainareas,eachdealingwithonepartoftheprocess:

1)Articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学):

thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.

2)Accousticphonetics(声学语音学):

thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech.

3)Auditoryphonetics(听觉语音学):

It`sconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.

22.Speechorgans

Theyrefertothearticulatoryapparatusofhumanbeingwhichcontainsseveralimportantareas:

lungs,throat,mouth(oralcavity)andnose(nasalcavity).Theairstreamcomingfromthelungsismodifiedinvariouswaysinthesecavitiesandsovarioussoundsareproduced.

23.ClassificationofEnglishconsonants

Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintwoways:

oneisintermsofmannerofarticulationandtheotherisintermsofplaceofarticulation.

IntermsofmannerofarticulationtheEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:

Stops:

(塞音)【p】【b】【t】【d】

Fricatives:

(擦音)【f】【v】【s】【z】【∫】【θ】【ð】【3】【h】

Affricates:

(塞擦音)【】【】

Liquids:

(流音)【l】【r】alsocalled“retroflex”.

Nasals:

(鼻音)【m】【n】【】

Glides(半元音/音渡)【w】【j】sometimescalled“semivowels”

Intermsofplaceofarticulation,theEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:

Bilabial:

(双唇音)【p】【b】【m】【w】

Labiodental:

(唇齿音)【f】【v】

Dental:

(齿音)【】【】

Alveolar:

(齿龈音)【t】【d】【s】【z】【n】【l】【r】

Palatal:

(腭音)【】【】【】【】【j】

Velar:

(软腭音)【k】【g】【】

Glottal:

(喉音)【h】

24.ClassificationofEnglishvowels

Vowelsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors:

thepositionofthetongue,theopennessofthemouth,theshapeofthelips,andthelengthofthevowels.

Accordingtothepositionofthetongue:

Frontvowels:

【i:

】【i】【e】【】【a】

Centralvowels:

【】【】【】

Backvowels:

【u:

】【u】【a:

】【】【】

Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth:

Closevowels:

【i:

】【i】【u:

】【u】

Semi-close:

【e】【】

Semi-open:

【】【】

Open:

【a】【a:

】【】【】【】

Accordingtothesh

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