胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记文档格式.doc

胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记文档格式.doc

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加1Discreteness（可分离性）Eachsoundinthelanguageistreatedasdiscrete.

加2Iconicity拟象性:

thedirect/non-arbitrary/non-symbolicrelationbetweenmeaningandform.Thereareresemblancesbetweenthelanguageformandwhattheyreferto.Thatrelationshipiscalledicon.Iconicityexistsinsounds,lexiconsandsyntax.Itisthemotivationbetweenlanguageformsandmeanings.Itisarelationofresemblancebetweenlanguageformandwhattheyreferto.

1.5 Functionsoflanguage

AsisproposedbyJacobson,languagehassixfunctions:

1. Referential:

toconveymessageandinformation;

2. Poetic:

toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake;

3. Emotive:

toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions;

4. Conative:

topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties;

5. Phatic:

toestablishcommunionwithothers;

6. Metalingual:

toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings.

Halliday（1994）proposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage.Itmeansthatlanguagehasthreemetafunctions:

1. Ideationalfunction:

toconveynewinformation,tocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearer;

2. Interpersonalfunction:

embodyingalluseoflanguagetoexpresssocialandpersonalrelationships;

3. Textualfunction:

referringtothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretchofspokenandwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakealivingpassagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.

AccordingtoHuZhuanglin,languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:

1.5.1 Informative

Theinformativefunctionmeanslanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.

1.5.2 Interpersonalfunction

Theinterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.

1.5.3 Performative

Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.

1.5.4 Emotivefunction

Theemotivefunctionisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.

1.5.5 Phaticcommunion

Thephaticcommunionmeanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.

1.5.6 Recreationalfunction

Therecreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy’sbabblingorachanter’schanting.

1.5.7 Metalingualfunction

Themetalingualfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetotalkaboutitself.E.g.Icanusetheword“book”totalkaboutabook,andIcanalsousetheexpression“thewordbook”totalkaboutthesign“b-o-o-k”itself.

1.6 Whatislinguistics?

Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonecommunity,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.

1.7 Mainbranchesoflinguistics

1.7.1 Phonetics

Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,itincludesthreemainareas:

articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.

1.7.2 Phonology

Phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.

1.7.3 Morphology

Morphologystudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning–morphemesandword-formationprocesses.

1.7.4 Syntax

Syntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.

1.7.5 Semantics

Semanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.

1.7.6 Pragmatics

Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.

1.8 Macrolinguistics

1.8.1 Psycholinguistics

1.8.2 Sociolinguistics

1.8.3 Anthropologicallinguistics

1.8.4 Computationallinguistics

1.9 Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics

1.9.1 Descriptivevs.prescriptive

Tosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtherulestowhichthemembersofalanguage-communityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness.

Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesforthecorrectuseoflanguageandsettlethedisputesoverusageonceandforall.

Forexample,“Don’tsayX.”isaprescriptivecommand;

“Peopledon’tsayX.”isadescriptivestatement.Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Inthe18thcentury,allthemainEuropeanlanguageswerestudiedprescriptively.However,modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptivebecausethenatureoflinguisticsasasciencedeterminesitspreoccupationwithdescriptioninsteadofprescription.

1.9.2 Synchronicvs.diachronic

Asynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant（usuallyatpresent）asitspointofobservation.Saussure’sdiachronicdescriptionisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.E.g.astudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare’stimewouldbesynchronic,andastudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesincethenwouldbeadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.Thereasonisthatunlessthevariousstateofalanguagearesuccessfullystudieditwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.

1.9.3 Langue&

parole

Saussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsaslangueandparole.Langueisrelativestableandsystematic,paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints;

langueisnotspokenbyanindividual,paroleisalwaysanaturallyoccurringevent.Whatalinguistshoulddo,accordingtoSaussure,istodrawrulesfromamassofconfusedfacts,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethemthesubjectoflinguistics.

1.9.4 Competenceandperformance

AccordingtoChomsky,alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledthelinguisticcompetence,andtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationsiscalledperformance.Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchhissupposedcompetence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,Saussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproductandasetofconventionsofacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofmindofeachindividual.SaussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanChomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.

1.9.5 Eticvs.emic

Beingeticmeansresearchers’makingfartoomany,aswellasbehaviorallyandinconsequential,differentiations,justasoftenthecasewithphoneticsvs.phonemicsanalysisinlinguisticsproper.

Anemicsetofspeechactsandeventsmustbeonethatisvalidatedasmeaningfulviafinalresourcetothenativemembersofaspeechcommunityratherthanviaappealtotheinvestigator’singenuityorintuitionalone.

Chapter2SpeechSounds

2.1 Speechproductionandperception

Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas:

1. Articulatoryphonetics–thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds

2. Acousticphonetics–thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech

3. Auditoryphonetics–thestudyofperceptionofspeechsounds

Mostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.

2.3 Segments,divergences,andphonetictranscription

2.3.2 Phonetictranscription

InternationalPhoneticAlphabet（IPA）:

thesystemofsymbolsforrepresentingthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguageaccordingtotheprinciplesoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.Thesymbolsconsistoflettersanddiacritics.SomelettersaretakenfromtheRomanalphabet,somearespecialsymbols.

2.4 Consonants

2.4.3 Mannersofarticulation

1. Stop/plosive:

2. Fricative:

3. （Median）approximant:

4. Lateral（approximant）:

2.4.4 Placesofarticulation

1. Bilabial:

Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetwolips.

2. Labiodental:

Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth.