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201*年*月**日
AutomatingManufacturingSystemswithPLCs
Controlengineeringhasevolvedovertime.Inthepasthumanswerethemainmethodforcontrollingasystem.Morerecentlyelectricityhasbeenusedforcontrolandearlyelectricalcontrolwasbasedonrelays.Theserelaysallowpowertobeswitchedon
andoffwithoutamechanicalswitch.Itiscommontouserelaystomakesimplelogicalcontroldecisions.Thedevelopmentoflowcostcomputerhasbroughtthemostrecentrevolution,theProgrammableLogicController(PLC).TheadventofthePLCbeganinthe1970s,andhasbecomethemostcommonchoiceformanufacturingcontrols.PLCshavebeengainingpopularityonthefactoryfloorandwillprobablyremainpredominantforsometimetocome.Mostofthisisbecauseoftheadvantagestheyoffer.
1.1Ladderlogic
LadderlogicisthemainprogrammingmethodusedforPLCs.Asmentionedbefore,ladderlogichasbeendevelopedtomimicrelaylogic.logicdiagramswasastrategicone.Byselectingladderlogicasthemainprogrammingmethod,theamountofretrainingneededforengineersandtradespeoplewasgreatlyreduced.
Moderncontrolsystemsstillincluderelays,butthesearerarelyusedforlogic.Arelayisasimpledevicethatusesamagneticfieldtocontrolaswitch,aspicturedinFigure1.1.Whenavoltageisappliedtotheinputcoil,theresultingcurrentcreatesamagneticfield.Themagneticfieldpullsametalswitch(orreed)towardsitandthecontactstouch,closingtheswitch.
Figure1.1SimpleRelayLayoutsandSchematics
Relaysareusedtoletonepowersourcecloseaswitchforanother(oftenhighcurrent)powersource,whilekeepingthemisolated.AnexampleofarelayinasimplecontrolapplicationisshowninFigure1.2.Inthissystemthefirstrelayontheleftisusedasnormallyclosed,andwillallowcurrenttoflowuntilavoltageisappliedtotheinputA.ThesecondrelayisnormallyopenandwillnotallowcurrenttoflowuntilavoltageisappliedtotheinputB.Ifcurrentisflowingthroughthefirsttworelaysthencurrentwillflowthroughthecoilinthethirdrelay,andclosetheswitchforoutputC.Thiscircuitwouldnormallybedrawnintheladderlogicform.ThiscanbereadlogicallyasCwillbeonifAisoffandBison.
Figure1.2ASimpleRelayController
TheexampleinFigure1.2doesnotshowtheentirecontrolsystem,butonlythelogic.WhenweconsideraPLCthereareinputs,outputs,andthelogic.Figure1.3showsamorecompleterepresentationofthePLC.Heretherearetwoinputsfrompushbuttons.Wecanimaginetheinputsasactivating24VDCrelaycoilsinthePLC.Thisinturndrivesanoutputrelaythatswitches115VAC,thatwillturnonalight.Note,inactualPLCsinputsareneverrelays,butoutputsareoftenrelays.TheladderlogicinthePLCisactuallyacomputerprogramthattheusercanenterandchange.Noticethatbothoftheinputpushbuttonsarenormallyopen,buttheladderlogicinsidethePLChasonenormallyopencontact,andonenormallyclosedcontact.DonotthinkthattheladderlogicinthePLCneedsomatchtheinputsoroutputs.Manybeginnerswillgetcaughttryingtomaketheladderlogicmatchtheinputtypes.
Figure1.3APLCIllustratedWithRelays
Manyrelaysalsohavemultipleoutputs(throws)andthisallowsanoutputrelaytoalsobeaninputsimultaneously.ThecircuitshowninFigure1.4isanexampleofthis,itiscalledasealincircuit.Inthiscircuitthecurrentcanflowthrougheitherbranchofthecircuit,throughthecontactslabelledAorB.TheinputBwillonlybeonwhentheoutputBison.IfBisoff,andAisenergized,thenBwillturnon.IfBturnsonthentheinputBwillturnon,andkeepoutputBonevenifinputAgoesoff.AfterBisturnedontheoutputBwillnotturnoff.
Figure1.4ASeal-inCircuit
1.2Programming
ThefirstPLCswereprogrammedwithatechniquethatwasbasedonrelaylogicwiringschematics.Thiseliminatedtheneedtoteachtheelectricians,techniciansandengineershowtoprogramacomputer-but,thismethodhasstuckanditisthemostcommontechniqueforprogrammingPLCstoday.AnexampleofladderlogiccanbeseeninFigure1.5.Tointerpretthisdiagramimaginethatthepowerisontheverticallineonthelefthandside,wecallthisthehotrail.Ontherighthandsideistheneutralrail.Inthefiguretherearetworungs,andoneachrungtherearecombinationsofinputs(twoverticallines)andoutputs(circles).Iftheinputsareopenedorclosedintherightcombinationthepowercanflowfromthehotrail,throughtheinputs,topowertheoutputs,andfinallytotheneutralrail.Aninputcancomefromasensor,switch,oranyothertypeofsensor.AnoutputwillbesomedeviceoutsidethePLCthatisswitchedonoroff,suchaslightsormotors.Inthetoprungthecontactsarenormallyopenandnormallyclosed.WhichmeansifinputAisonandinputBisoff,thenpowerwillflowthroughtheoutputandactivateit.AnyothercombinationofinputvalueswillresultintheoutputXbeingoff.
Figure1.5ASimpleLadderLogicDiagram
ThesecondrungofFigure1.5ismorecomplex,thereareactuallymultiplecombinationsofinputsthatwillresultintheoutputYturningon.Ontheleftmostpartoftherung,powercouldflowthroughthetopifCisoffandDison.Powercouldalso(andsimultaneously)flowthroughthebottomifbothEandFaretrue.Thiswouldgetpowerhalfwayacrosstherung,andthenifGorHistruethepowerwillbedeliveredtooutputY.Inlaterchapterswewillexaminehowtointerpretandconstructthesediagrams.
ThereareothermethodsforprogrammingPLCs.Oneoftheearliesttechniquesinvolvedmnemonicinstructions.TheseinstructionscanbederiveddirectlyfromtheladderlogicdiagramsandenteredintothePLCthroughasimpleprogrammingterminal.AnexampleofmnemonicsisshowninFigure1.6.Inthisexampletheinstructionsarereadonelineatatimefromtoptobottom.Thefirstline00000hastheinstructionLDN(inputloadandnot)forinputA..ThiswillexaminetheinputtothePLCandifitisoffitwillremembera1(ortrue),ifitisonitwillremembera0(orfalse).ThenextlineusesanLD(inputload)statementtolookattheinput.Iftheinputisoffitremembersa0,iftheinputisonitremembersa1(note:
thisisthereverseoftheLD).TheANDstatementrecallsthelasttwonumbersrememberedandifthearebothtruetheresultisa1,otherwisetheresultisa0.Thisresultnowreplacesthetwonumbersthatwererecalled,andthereisonlyonenumberremembered.Theprocessisrepeatedforlines00003and00004,butwhenthesearedonetherearenowthreenumbersremembered.
TheoldestnumberisfromtheAND,thenewernumbersarefromthetwoLDinstructions.TheANDinline00005combinestheresultsfromthelastLDinstructionsandnowtherearetwonumbersremembered.TheORinstructiontakesthetwonumbersnowremainingandifeitheroneisa1theresultisa1,otherwisetheresultisa0.Thisresultreplacesthetwonumbers,andthereisnowasinglenumberthere.ThelastinstructionistheST(storeoutput)thatwilllookatthelastvaluestoredandifitis1,theoutputwillbeturnedon,ifitis0theoutputwillbeturnedoff.
Figure1.6AnExampleofaMnemonicProgramandEquivalentLadderLogic
TheladderlogicprograminFigure1.6,isequivalenttothemnemonicprogram.EvenifyouhaveprogrammedaPLCwithladderlogic,itwillbeconvertedtomnemonicformbeforebeingusedbythePLC.Inthepastmnemonicprogrammingwasthemostcommon,butnowitisuncommonforuserstoevenseemnemonicprograms.
SequentialFunctionCharts(SFCs)havebeendevelopedtoaccommodatetheprogrammingofmoreadvancedsystems.Thesearesimilartoflowcharts,butmuchmorepowerful.TheexampleseeninFigure1.7isdoingtwodifferentthings.Toreadthechart,startatthetopwhereissaysstart.Belowthisthereisthedoublehorizontallinethatsaysfollowbothpaths.AsaresultthePLCwillstarttofollowthebranchontheleftandrighthandsidesseparatelyandsimultaneously.Onthelefttherearetwofunctionsthefirstoneisthepowerupfunction.Thisfunctionwillrununtilitdecidesitisdone,andthepowerdownfunctionwillcomeafter.Ontherighthandsideistheflashfunction,thiswillrununtilitisdone.Thesefunctionslookunexplained,buteachfunction,suchaspowerupwillbeasmallladderlogicprogram.Thismethodismuchdifferentfromflowchartsbecauseitdoesnothavetofollowasinglepaththroughtheflowchart..
Figure1.7AnExampleofaSequentialFunctionChart
StructuredTextprogramminghasbeendevelopedasamoremodernprogramminglanguage.ItisquitesimilartolanguagessuchasBASIC.AsimpleexampleisshowninFigure1.8.ThisexampleusesaPLCmemorylocationi.Thismemorylocationisforaninteger,aswillbeexplainedlaterinthebook.Thefirstlineoftheprogramsetsthevalueto0.Thenextlinebeginsaloop,andwillbewheretheloopreturnsto.Thenextlinerecallsthevalueinlocationi,adds1toitandreturnsittothesamelocation.Thenextlinecheckstoseeiftheloopshouldquit.Ifiisgreaterthanorequalto10,thentheloopwillquit,otherwisethecomputerwillgobackuptotheREPEATstatementcontinuefromthere.Eachtimetheprogramgoesthroughthisloopiwillincreaseby1untilthevaluereaches10.
Figure1.8AnExampleofaStructuredTextProgram
2.1PLCConnections
WhenaprocessiscontrolledbyaPLCitusesinputsfromsensorstomakedecisionsandupdateoutputstodriveactuators,asshownin