英语翻译.docx
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英语翻译
英语翻译
Peoplehavewonderedforalongtimehowtheirpersonalities,andbehaviorsareformed.Itisnoteasytoexplainwhyonepersonisintelligentandanotherisnot,orwhyoneiscooperativeandanotheriscompetitive.
Socialscientistsare,ofcourse,extremelyinterestedinthesetypesofquestions.(61)Theywanttoexplainwhywepossesscertaincharacteristicsandexhibitcertainbehaviors.Therearenoclearanswersyet,buttwodistinctschoolsofthoughtonthematterhavedeveloped.Asonemightexpect,thetwoapproachesareverydifferentfromeachother.Thecontroversyisoftenconvenientlyreferredtoasnaturevs.nurture.
(62)Thosewhosupportthenaturesideoftheconflictbelievethatourpersonalitiesandbehaviorpatternsarelargelydeterminedbybiologicalfactors.(63)Thatourenvironmenthaslittle,ifanything,todowithourabilities,characteristicsandbehavioriscentraltothistheory.Takentoanextreme,thistheorymaintainsthatourbehaviorispredeterminedtosuchagreatdegreethatwearealmostcompletelygovernedbyourinstincts.
Thosewhosupportthenurturetheory,thatis,theyadvocateeducation,areoftencalledbehaviorists.Theyclaimthatourenvironmentismoreimportantthanourbiologicallybasedinstinctsindetermininghowwewillact.Abehaviorist,B.F.Skinner,seeshumansasbeingswhosebehaviorisalmostcompletelyshapedbytheirsurroundings.(64)Thebehavioristsmaintainthat,likemachines,humansrespondtoenvironmentalstimuliasthebasisoftheirbehavior.
Letusexaminethedifferentexplanationsaboutonehumancharacteristic,intelligence,offeredbythetwotheories.(65)Supportersofthenaturetheoryinsistthatwearebornwithacertaincapacityforlearningthatisbiologicallydetermined.Needlesstosay,theydon’tbelievethatfactorsintheenvironmenthavemuchinfluenceonwhatisbasicallyapredeterminedcharacteristic.Ontheotherhand,behavioristsarguethatourintelligencelevelsaretheproductofourexperiences.(66)Behavioristssuggestthatthechildwhoisraisedinanenvironmentwheretherearemanystimuliwhichdevelophisorhercapacityforappropriateresponseswillexperiencegreaterintellectualdevelopment.
Thesocialandpoliticalimplicationsofthesetwotheoriesareprofound.(67)IntheUnitedStates,blacksoftenscorebelowwhitesonstandardizedintelligencetests.Thisleadssomenatureproponentstoconcludethatblacksarebiologicallyinferiortowhites.(68)Behaviorists,incontrast,saythatdifferencesinscoresareduetothefactthatblacksareoftendeprivedofmanyoftheeducationalandotherenvironmentaladvantagesthatwhitesenjoy.
Mostpeoplethinkneitherofthesetheoriescanyetfullyexplainhumanbehavior.
1991
Thefactisthattheenergycrisis,whichhassuddenlybeenofficiallyannounced,hasbeenwithusforalongtimenow,andwillbewithusforanevenlongertime.WhetherAraboilflowsfreelyornot,itiscleartoeveryonethatworldindustrycannotbeallowedtodependonsofragileabase.(71)Thesupplyofoilcanbeshutoffunexpectedlyatanytime,andinanycase,theoilwellswillallrundryinthirtyyearsorsoatthepresentrateofuse.
(72)Newsourcesofenergymustbefound,andthiswilltaketime,butitisnotlikelytoresultinanysituationthatwilleverrestorethatsenseofcheapandplentifulenergywehavehadinthetimespast.Foranindefiniteperiodfromhereon,mankindisgoingtoadvancecautiously,andconsideritselfluckythatitcanadvanceatall.
Tomakethesituationworse,thereisasyetnosignthatanyslowingoftheworld’spopulationisinsight.Althoughthebirthratehasdroppedinsomenations,includingtheUnitedStates,thepopulationoftheworldseemssuretopasssixbillionandperhapsevensevenbillionasthetwentyfirstcenturyopens.
(73)Thefoodsupplywillnotincreasenearlyenoughtomatchthis,whichmeansthatweareheadingintoacrisisinthematterofproducingandmarketingfood.
Takingallthisintoaccount,whatmightwereasonablyestimatesupermarketstobelikeintheyear2001?
Tobeginwith,theworldfoodsupplyisgoingtobecomesteadilytighteroverthenextthirtyyears—evenhereintheUnitedStates.By2001,thepopulationoftheUnitedStateswillbeatleasttwohundredfiftymillionandpossiblytwohundredseventymillion,andthenationwillfinditdifficulttoexpandfoodproductiontofilltheadditionalmouths.(74)ThiswillbeparticularlytruesinceenergypinchwillmakeitdifficulttocontinueagricultureinthehighenergyAmericanfashionthatmakesitpossibletocombinefewfarmerswithhighyields.
Itseemsalmostcertainthatby2001theUnitedStateswillnolongerbeagreatfoodexportingnationandthat,ifnecessityforcesexports,itwillbeatthepriceofbelttighteningathome.
Infact,asfooditemswillendtodeclineinqualityanddecreaseinvariety,thereisverylikelytobeincreasinguseofflavoringadditives.(75)Untilsuchtimeasmankindhasthesensetoloweritspopulationtothepointwheretheplanetcanprovideacomfortablesupportforall,peoplewillhavetoacceptmoreunnaturalfood.
Intellingenceatbestisanassumptiveconstruct—themeaningofthewordhasneverbeenclear.(71)Thereismoreagreementonthekindsofbehaviorreferredtobythetermthanthereisonhowtointerpretorclassifythem.Butitisgenerallyagreedthatapersonofhighintelligenceisonewhocangraspideasreadily,makedistinctions,reasonlogically,andmakeueofverbalandmathematicalsymbolsinsolvingproblems.Anintelligencetestisaroughmeasureofachild’scapacityforlearningthekindsofthingsrequiredinschool.Itdoesnotmeasurecharacter,socialadjustment,physicalendurance,manualskills,orartisticabilities.Itisnotsupposedto—itwasnotdesignedforsuchpurposes.(72)Tocriticiseitforsuchfailureisroughlycomparabletocriticisingathermometerfornotmeasuringwindvelocity.
Theotherthingwehavetonoticeisthattheassessmentoftheintelligenceofanysubjectisessentiallyacomparativeaffair.
(73)Nowsincetheassessmentofintelligenceisacomparativematterwemustbesurethatthescalewithwhichwearecomparingoursubjectsprovidesavalidorfaircomparison.Itisherethatsomeofthedifficultieswhichinterestusbegin.Anytestperformedinvolvesatleastthreefactors:
theintentiontodoone’sbest,theknowledgerequiredforunderstandingwhatyouhavetodo,andtheintellectualabilitytodoit.(74)Thefirsttwomustbeequalforallwhoarebeingcompared,ifanycomparisonintermsofintelligenceistobemade.Inschoolpopulationsinourculturetheseassumptionscanbemadefairandreasonable,andthevalueofintelligencetestinghasbeenprovedthoroughly.Itsvaluelies,ofcourse,initsprovidingasatisfactorybasisforprediction.Nooneisintheleastinterestedinthemarksalittlechildgetsonhistest;whatweareinterestediniswhetherwecanconcludefromhismarkonthetestthatthechildwilldobetterorworsethanotherchildrenofhisageattaskswhichwethinkrequiregeneralintelligence.(75)Onthewholesuchaconclusioncanbedrawnwithacertaindegreeofconfidence,butonlyifthechildcanbeassumedtohavehadthesameattitudetowardsthetestastheotherswithwhomheisbeingcompared,andonlyifhewasnotpunishedbylackofrelevantinformationwhichtheypossessed.
(71)Themethodofscientificinvestigationisnothingbuttheexpressionofthenecessarymodeofworkingofthehumanmind;itissimplythemodebywhichallphenomenaarereasonedaboutandgivenpreciseandexactexplanation.Thereisnomoredifference,butthereisjustthesamekindofdifference,betweenthementaloperationsofamanofscienceandthoseofanordinaryperson,asthereisbetweentheoperationsandmethodsofabakerorofabutcherweighingouthisgoodsincommonscales,andtheoperationsofachemistinperformingadifficultandcomplexanalysisbymeansofhisbalanceandfinelygradedweights.(72)Itisnotthatthescalesintheonecase,andthebalanceintheother,differintheprinciplesoftheirconstructionormannerofworking;butthatthelatterismuchfinerapparatusandofcoursemuchmoreaccurateinitsmeasurementthantheformer.
Youwillunderstandthisbetter,perhaps,ifIgiveyousomefamiliarexamples.(73)Youhaveallhearditrepeatedthatmenofscienceworkbymeansofinduction(归纳法)anddeduction,thatbythehelpoftheseoperations,they,inasortofsense,managetoextractfromNaturecertainnaturallaws,andthatoutofthese,bysomespecialskilloftheirown,theybuilduptheirtheories.(74)Anditisimaginedbymanythattheoperationsofthecommonmindcanbebynomeanscomparedwiththeseprocesses,andthattheyhavetobeacquiredbyasortofspecialtraining.Tohearalltheselargewords,youwouldthinkthatthemindofamanofsciencemustbeconstituteddifferentlyfromthatofhisfellowmen;butifyouwillnotbefrightenedbyterms,youwilldiscoverthatyouarequitewrong,andthatalltheseterribleapparatusarebeingusedbyyourselveseverydayandeveryhourofyourlives.
ThereisawellknownincidentinoneofMoliere’splays,wheretheauthormakestheheroexpressunboundeddelightonbeingtoldthathehadbeentalkingprose(散文)duringthewholeofhislife.Inthesameway,Itrustthatyouwilltakecomfort,andbedelightedwithyourselves,onthediscoverythatyouhavebeenactingontheprinciplesofinductiveanddeductivephilosophyduringthesameperiod.(75)Probablythereisnotoneherewhohasnotinthecourseofthedayhadoccasiontosetinmotionacomplextrainofreasoning,oftheverysamekind,thoughdifferingindegree,asthatwhichascientificmangoesthroughintracingthecausesofnaturalphenomena.
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