语言学笔记.docx

语言学笔记.docx

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语言学笔记

IIntroduction

1.Whatislinguistics?

Linguisticsisthesystematic/scientificstudyoflanguage.

Whatistherelationshipbetweendata&theory?

▲Inlinguistics,asinanyotherdiscipline,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcomplementation;thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdataishardlyvalid;datawithoutbeingexplainedbysometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.

Theprocessofstudymaybeasfollows:

1）Certainlinguisticsfactsarefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,sogeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem.

2）Onthebasisofthesegeneralizationshypothesesareformulatedtoaccountforthefacts.Thesehypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations.

3）Atheoryisconstructedabouthowlanguageworks.

2.Whatisalinguist?

Whatisthemaintaskforhim?

Apersonwhostudieslinguistics.Hedoesnotneedtobeabletousealargenumberoflanguagesforcommunicationpurposes,butheshouldhaveawideexperienceofdifferenttypesoflanguages.Histaskisnottolearntouseanyparticularlanguage,buttostudyhoweachlanguageisconstructed,howitisusedbyitsspeakers,andhowitisrelatedtootherlanguages.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagevariesfromdialecttodialect,fromonesocialclasstoanother,howitchangesfromonehistoricalperiodtothenext,andhowchildrenacquiretheirmothertongue.Tosumup,histaskisbasicallytostudyandunderstandthegeneralprinciplesuponwhichalllanguagesarebuilt.

3.Whatarethescopesoflinguistics?

▲Phonetics:

thestudyofhumanspeechsound

▲Phonology:

thesoundpattering

▲Morphology:

thestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed

▲Syntax:

thearrangementofsentences

▲Semantics:

thestudyofmeaning

▲Pragmatics:

thestudyofhowspeakersusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication

▲Psycholinguistics:

therelationshipbetweenlanguage&themind

▲Historiclinguistics:

thestudyoflanguagechange

▲Sociolinguistics:

therelationshipbetweenlanguage&society

▲Appliedlinguistics:

theapplicationoflinguistictheories&principlestolanguageteaching（narrowsense）

▲Anthropologicallinguistics

▲Neurologicallinguistics

▲Mathematicallinguistics

▲Computationallinguistics

4.Whataresomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics?

（重要区别）

①Synchroniclinguistics（共时语言学）:

thestudyofalanguagesystematoneparticularpointintime.

Diachroniclinguistics（历时语言学）:

anapproachtolinguisticswhichstudieshowalanguagechangesoveraperiodtime.

Inmodernlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.

e.g.ThesoundsystemofModernBritishEnglish

②Prescriptivevs.descriptive（规定性与描写性）

▲Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsactuallyare.

▲Do/don’tsayX.（Prescriptive）

▲Peopledo/don’tsayX.（descriptive）

③Speech&writing

④Langue&parole

Whomadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?

Andwhen?

▲F.deSaussure（aSwisslinguist）intheearly20thcentury.

⑤Competence&performance（语言能力与语言应用）

▲1）Whoproposedthedistinctionbetweenthem?

▲N.Chomsky（Americanlinguist）;AspectsofthetheoryofSyntax《句法理论的若干问题》

▲2）Whatiscompetence&whatisperformance?

▲Competence:

theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage（语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解）

▲Performance:

theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication（指在具体场景中语言的真实使用）

WhatarethedifferencesbetweenSaussure’sandChomsky’sdistinction?

▲SaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflanguageisamatterofsocialconventionandChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.

▲ForthestudentsofEnglish,competenceneedstobenurturedintheprocessofenhancingperformance,butcompetencecallsformoreeffortsatthebeginningstagewhilesuccessinperformancemaymotivatetheacquisitionofcompetence.

Modernlinguistics&traditionalgrammar

Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthem?

1.Linguisticsisdescriptivenotprescriptive.

2.Linguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.

3.LinguisticsdoesnotforcelanguageintoaLatin-basedoruniversalframework.

Whatislanguage?

Definition:

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Whatarethemainfeaturesoflanguage?

▲1）languagemustbeasystem.

▲2）languageisarbitrary.

▲3）symbolicnature:

wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasbyconvention.

▲4）languageisvocalforspokenlanguagecamemuchearlierthanwrittenlanguage.

▲5）languageishuman-specific.

语言对人类至关重要,但很难具体阐述是什么使我们的语言优于动物的”语言”。

Birdsingsandbeedances它们也是在使用语言吗？

实际上不是。

罗素（BertrandRussell）曾经说过：

不管一只狗可以多么流利地bark，它无法告诉你它的父母贫穷但诚实。

那么，是什么是它区别与其他物种所使用的“语言”？

----即人类语言性质的特征是什么？

Whatarethedefiningproperties（designfeatures识别特征）ofhumanlanguage?

Whoputforwardthem?

（Americanlinguist:

CharlesHockett）

1）.Productivity（多产性）:

theabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinournativelanguage,includingthesentencesthatwehaveneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothesituationinwhichtheyareuttered.

Whyislanguageproductive?

2）Duality（二重性）.Becauseofdualitythespeakerisabletocombinethebasiclinguisticunitstoformaninfinitesetofsentences,mostofwhichareneverbeforeproducedorheard.

3）Arbitrariness（任意性）:

theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Thereisnologicalrelationshipbetweenmeaningsandsounds.

▲Whatisthelinkbetweenalinguisticsign&itsmeaning?

▲Arbitrarinessoflanguagemakesitpotentiallycreative.Thatis,itallowslanguagetochange.Onthecontrary,theothersideofarbitrariness---conventionality（约定性）makeslearningalanguagelaborious.Forlearnersofforeignlanguage,itistheconventionalityofalanguagethatismoreworthnoticingthanitsarbitrariness.

任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，而语言的约定性又使语言学习变得费力。

约定性比任意性更值得注意。

4）Displacement（移位性）:

oneofthepropertiesoflanguagewhichmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharenotpresent:

realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfutureorinfarawayplaces.

5）Culturaltransmission（文化传递）:

whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis（wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage）,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.AnEnglishspeakerandaChinesespeakerarebothabletousealanguage,buttheyarenotmutuallyintelligible.Itispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherbyinstinct.

Functionsoflanguage（added）:

1.Phaticfunction（应酬功能）:

languageusedforestablishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontactratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas.

“Howareyou?

”“Niceday,isn’tit?

”

AtermusedbytheBritish-PolishanthropologistMalinowskitorefertocommunicationbetweenpeoplewhichisnotintendedtoseekorconveyinformationbuthasthesocialfunctionofestablishingormaintainingsocialcontact.

2.Directivefunction（指示功能）:

languageusedtogetthehearertodosomething.

Shutthedoor.

Iadviseyounottodoit.（asuggestion）

Haveaseat.（anoffer）

Docomein,please.（aninvitation）

3.Informativefunction（信息功能）:

languageusedtotellwhatthespeakerbelieves,togiveinformationaboutfacts,ortoreasonthingsout.

Waterboilsat212degreeFahrenheit.

4.Interrogativefunction（疑问功能）:

languageusedtogetinformationfromothers.

Whendidyouarrive?

Whatdoyouthinkofit?

Howdoyoufeelnow?

Rhetoricalquestions（反意疑问句）,however,donothavesuchfunction,astheydonotexpectanswer.

5.Expressivefunction（表达功能）:

languageusedtorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker（evaluation;appraisement;assertion;etc.）.

Goodheavens!

MyGod!

I’mextremelysorryabout…

6.Evocativefunction（召唤功能）:

languageusedtocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimistoamuse,startle,anger,soothe,worryorplease.（Jokes;advertising;propaganda;etc.）

7.Performativefunction（施为功能）:

languageusedtoperformactions,to“dothings”.

Ideclarethemeetingopen.

Ideclarethewarupon...

Isentenceyoutenyearsofhardlabor.

II.Phonology

1.Whatarethespeechsounds（语音）?

Speechsoundsaresoundsthatconveymeaninginhumanlinguisticcommunication.

2.Whatisphonetics?

Itisthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage.

3.Whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?

Articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）:

studiesthehumanspeechorgans,andthewayinwhichthespeechsoundsareproduced.

Acousticphonetics（声学语音学）:

dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds;itstudiesthesoundwavesthroughtheuseofsuchmachinesasaspectrograph（光谱仪）.

Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）:

thestudyoftheperceptionofsoundsbythehumanear.

4.Narrow&broadtranscriptions

IPA:

InternationalPhoneticAlphabet（国际音标）:

asystemofsymbolsforrepresentingthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguageaccordingtotheprinciplesoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.Thesymbolsconsistoflettersanddiacritics.

Diacritic（变音符号）:

amarkplacedover,under,orthroughalettertoshowthatithasasoundvaluedifferentfromthatofthesameletterwithoutthemark.E.g.Ç;ñ;Ð

Narrowtranscription/phoneticnotation:

thephonetictranscriptionwithdiacritics（严式音标/语音注音法）

Broadtranscription/phonemicnotation:

generallyusedindictionariesandlanguagetextbooks（withoutdiacritics）宽式音标/音位注音法

5.Phone,phoneme,allophone

1）Phone:

aphoneticunitorsegment.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Phonesareplacedwithinsquarebrackets[p].音素

2）Phoneme:

anabstracta