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TheFirstCivilizations
Evidencesuggeststhatanimportantstimulusbehindtheriseofearlycivilizationswasthedevelopmentofsettledagriculture,whichunleashedaseriesofchangesintheorganizationofhumancommunitiesthatculminatedintheriseoflargeancientempires.
证据显示,早期文明兴起的一个重要刺激因素就是定居农业的发展。
它导致了人类群落的组织结构出现一系列变更,在古代大型帝国的兴起时达到了顶峰。
Theexacttimeandplacethatcropswerefirstcultivatedsuccessfullyisuncertain.Manyprehistoriansbelievethatfarmingmayhaveemergedindependentlyinseveraldifferentareasoftheworldwhensmallcommunities,drivenbyincreasingpopulationandadeclineinavailablefoodresources,begantoplantseedsinthegroundinanefforttoguaranteetheirsurvival.Thefirstfarmers,whomayhavelivedaslongas10,000yearsago,undoubtedlyusedsimpletechniquesandstillreliedprimarilyonotherformsoffoodproduction,suchashunting,foraging,orpastoralism.Therealbreakthroughtookplacewhenfarmersbegantocultivatecropsalongthefloodplainsofriversystems.Theadvantagewasthatcropsgrowninsuchareaswerenotasdependentonrainfallandthereforeproducedamorereliableharvest.Anadditionalbenefitwasthatthesedimentcarriedbytheriverwatersdepositednutrientsinthesoil,thusenablingthefarmertocultivateasingleplotofgroundformanyyearswithoutmovingtoanewlocation.Thus,thefirsttrulysedentary（thatis,non-migratorysocietieswereborn.Astimewenton,suchcommunitiesgraduallylearnedhowtodirecttheflowofwatertoenhancetheproductivecapacityoftheland,whiletheintroductionoftheironploweventuallyledtothecultivationofheavysoilsnotpreviouslysusceptibletoagriculture.
庄稼究竟是何时何地被首次成功开垦种植还不得而知。
很多史前学家认为农业可能是当小型群落迫于不断增长人口和日益减少的食物资源压力而开始在地里种植种子试图维持他们的生计时,进而在世界不同区域独自兴起的。
出现在10,000年前的最早的农民,毫无疑问地使用着简单的技术,并且仍主要依赖着其他的食物生产方式,比如狩猎,觅食或放牧。
当农民开始在河川系统的泛滥平原沿岸种植庄稼的时候,真正的突破发生了。
它的优点是,在这些区域种植的庄稼不会过于依赖降水,因此会带来更可靠地收成。
它另外一个好处就是由河流带来的沉淀物会把营养物质沉积在土壤里,这就使得农民能够在常年耕作一块土地而不用去开垦新的耕地。
这样,第一个真正的定居（即不用迁徙的社会就形成了。
随着时间的推移,这些社群逐渐知道了如何引导水流来加强土地的生产能力,铁犁的引入也终于使之前不受用于农业的重质土壤得以开垦种植。
ThespreadofthisrivervalleyagricultureinvariouspartsofAsiaandAfricawasthedecisivefactorintheriseofthefirstcivilizations.Theincreaseinfoodproductionintheseregionsledtoasignificantgrowthinpopulation,whileeffortstocontroltheflowofwatertomaximizetheirrigationofcultivatedareasandtoprotectthelocalinhabitantsfromhostileforcesoutsidethecommunityprovokedthefirststepstowardcooperativeactivitiesonalargescale.Theneedtooverseetheentireprocessbroughtabouttheemergenceofanelitethatwaseventuallytransformedintoagovernment.
这种河谷农业在亚洲和非洲不同地区的传播是首次文明兴起的决定性因素。
这些地区食物产量的增长导致了人口的激增。
与此同时,为了努力控制水流来最大化灌溉耕种区域和保护当地居民免受部落外部敌对力量的侵袭,第一步的大规模合作活动被引发了。
而出于对整个程序步骤监督的需求,一个上层精英团体出现了。
它也逐渐转变成了政府部门。
ThefirstclearstepsintheriseofthefirstcivilizationstookplaceinthefourthandthirdmillenniaB.C.inMesopotamia,northernAfrica,India,andChina.Howthefirstgovernmentstookshapeintheseareasisnotcertain,butanthropologistsstudyingtheevolutionofhumancommunitiesinvariouspartsoftheworldhavediscoveredthatonecommonstageintheprocessistheemergenceofwhatarecalled“bigmen”withinasinglevillageoracollectionofvillages.Bymeansoftheirmilitaryprowess,dominantpersonalities,orpoliticaltalents,thesepeoplegraduallyemergeastheleadersofthatcommunity.Intime,the“bigmen”becomeformalsymbolsofauthorityandpassonthatauthoritytootherswithintheirownfamily.Asthecommunitiescontinuetogrowinsizeandmaterialwealth,the“bigmen”assumehereditarystatus,andtheiralliesandfamilymembersaretransformedintoahereditarymonarchy.
首期文明兴起的第一个明显的阶段发生在公元前三千和四千年的美索不达米亚、北非、印度和中国。
究竟第一个政府在这些地区是如何形成的还无法确定,但是人类学家在研究世界不同地区人类群体的进化时,发现在这个过程中有一个共同阶段,那就是在单个或多个村落中“bigman”的出现。
这些人凭借他们杰出的军事力量、超凡的品性和政治天赋,逐渐成为了那些群落的领导者。
后来,“bigman”成为了权力的正式象征,并且还会把权力传给他们家族的其他成员。
当这些群落的面积和物质财富不断发展壮大时,这些“bigman”就开始采取世袭制,他们的同盟和家族成员便转变成了世袭君主王室。
Theappearanceofthesesedentarysocietieshadamajorimpactonthesocialorganizations,religiousbeliefs,andwayoflifeofthepeopleslivingwithintheirboundaries.■Withtheincreaseinpopulationandthedevelopmentofcentralizedauthoritycametheemergenceofthecities.■Whilesomeoftheseurbancenterswereidentifiedwithaparticulareconomicfunction,suchasproximitytogoldorirondepositsorastrategiclocationonamajortraderoute,othersservedprimarilyasadministrativecentersorthesiteoftemplesfortheofficialcultorotherritualobservances.■Withinthesecities,newformsoflivelihoodappearedtosatisfythegrowingneedforsocialservicesandconsumergoods.■Somepeoplebecameartisansormerchants,whileothersbecamewarriors,scholars,orpriests.Insomecases,thephysicaldivisionwithinthefirstcitiesreflectedthestricthierarchicalcharacterofthesocietyasawhole,witharoyalpalacesurroundedbyanimposingwallandseparatefromtheremainderoftheurbanpopulation.Inotherinstances,suchastheIndusRiverValley,thecitieslackedaroyalprecinctandtheostentatiouspalacesthatmarkedtheircontemporarieselsewhere.
这些定居社会的出现对社会组织、宗教信仰和住在界定范围内的人们的生活方式都造成了巨大的影响。
随着人口的增长和中央集权的发展,城市开始出现。
其中一些城市中心被赋上了一个特定的经济功能,像那些靠近金矿或铁矿的,或是在主要贸易路线上占据关键战略位置的;其他地区主要充当行政中心,或是作为用于官方祭礼和其他典礼仪式的寺庙神殿地址。
在这些城市里,为满足不断增长的社会服务和消费商品的需求,新的生活形式出现了。
一些人
变成了工匠或商人,另一些人则成了武士、学者或牧师。
在某些情况下,首批城市的物理分割整体上反映了社会严格的等级特征。
富丽堂皇的围墙环绕着皇家宫殿,也隔离了城市剩下的人们。
但另一方面,如印度河流域,城市就没有像同时期其他地方一样的皇家区域和豪华招摇的宫殿。
1.Thephrase“culminatedin”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningto
A.reachedahighpointwith
B.logicallyfollowedfrom
C.partlycontributedto
D.marked
答案:
A
解析:
culminate:
“toreachthehighestoraclimacticordecisivepoint;toreachtheendorthefinalresultofsomething”（Merriam-Webster.“达到顶点/高潮;以……
告终”。
对应A选项。
2.Accordingtoparagraph2,whichofthefollowingstatementsistrueofearlyfarmers?
A.Theyusedfarmingtosupplementotherfoodsources.
B.Theyweredrivenoutofsmallcommunities.
C.Theywerevictimsofflooding.
D.Theyfarmedseveralplotsoflandatonce.
答案:
A
解析:
细节题,定为原文“Manyprehistoriansbelievethatfarmingmayhaveemergedindependentlyinseveraldifferentareasoftheworldwhensmallcommunities,drivenbyincreasingpopulationandadeclineinavailablefoodresources,begantoplantseedsinthegroundinanefforttoguaranteetheirsurvival.”原文说当食物来源短缺的时候来时种植粮食来维持生计,对应A“他们用农业来补充其他食物来源”。
3.Theword“undoubtedly”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningto
A.increasingly
B.certainly
C.ingeneral
D.apparently
答案:
B
解析:
undoubtedly,怀疑加上否定前缀,表相信确定,对应B选项。
4.Accordingtoparagraph2,whatareTWOreasonswhyfarmerschoserivervalleysforcultivation?
ToreceivecredityoumustselectTWOanswerchoices.
A.Thesoilsinrivervalleyswererichinnutrients.
B.Thecropsgrowninrivervalleyswerenotcompletelydependentonrainwater.
C.Farmingtechniquescouldnotbeeasilyappliedtosoilsfarfromrivers.
D.Theheavierweightofriversoilresultedinmorereliableharvests.
答案:
AB
解析:
细节题,定为原文“Theadvantagewasthatcropsgrowninsuchareaswerenotasdependentonrainfallandthereforeproducedamorereliableharvest.Anadditionalbenefitwasthatthesedimentcarriedbytheriverwatersdepositednutrientsinthesoil,thus
enablingthefarmertocultivateasingleplotofgroundformanyyearswithoutmovingtoanewlocation.”标红色处分别对应A“richinnutrients”营养丰富和B“notcompletelydependentonrainwater”不完全依赖降水。
5.Theword“enhance”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningto
A.serve
B.improve
C.control
D.protect
答案:
B
解析:
enhance:
“toincreaseorimprove”,增强,加强,提高。
对应B“improve”。
6.Theword“provoked”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningto
A.secured
B.coordinated
C.modeled
D.broughtabout
答案:
D
解析:
provoke:
“tocausetheoccurrenceof”,引起。
对应D“broughtabout”。
7.Accordingtoparagraph3,whichofthefollowingisNOTareasonwhygovernmentsfirstaroseamongagriculturalcommunities?
A.Asignificantincreaseinpopulation
B.Thedesiretocontrolwaterresourcesforirrigation
C.Theneedforprotectionfromoutsideforces
D.Thedemandfororganizedcommunicationwithothercommunities
答案:
D
解析:
否定事实题,定为原文“Theincreaseinfoodproductionintheseregionsledtoasignificantgrowthinpopulation（A,whileeffortstocontroltheflowofwatertomaximizetheirrigationofcultivatedareas（Bandtoprotectthelocalinhabitantsfromhostileforcesoutsidethecommunity（Cprovokedthefirststepstowardcooperativeactivitiesonalargescale.Theneedtooverseetheentireprocessbroughtabouttheemergenceofanelitethatwaseventuallytransformedintoagovernment.”
8.Accordingtoparagraph4,whatisnotknownabouttheriseofthefirstcivilizations?
A.Wherethefirststepstowardcivilizationtookplace
B.Whowasallowedtoreplace“bigmen”afterthe“bigmen”died
C.Whysomeindividualsbecamerecognizedasleaders
D.Howgovernmentsemerged
答案:
D
解析：
否定事实题，定为原文“ThefirstclearstepsintheriseofthefirstcivilizationstookplaceinthefourthandthirdmillenniaB.C.inMesopotamia,northernAfrica,India,andChina（A产生地点.Howthefirstgovernmentstookshapeintheseareasisnotcertain（D政府如何出现不得而知，所以不对,butanthropologistsstudyingtheevolutionofhumancommunitiesinvariouspartsoftheworldhavediscoveredthatonecommonstageintheprocessistheemergenceofwhatarecalled“bigmen”withinasinglevillageoracollectionofvillages.Bymeansoftheirmilitaryprowess,dominantpersonalities,orpoliticaltalents（C成为领导者原因,thesep
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