胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记.docx

胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记.docx

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胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记

Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics

1.3Designfeaturesoflanguage

Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichcandistinguishhumanlanguagefromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.

1.3.1Arbitrariness

Arbitrarinessreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeanings.

1.3.2Duality

Dualityreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.

1.3.3Creativity

Creativitymeansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.

1.3.4Displacement

Displacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent（intimeandspace）atthemomentofconversation.

加1Discreteness（可分离性）Eachsoundinthelanguageistreatedasdiscrete.

加2Iconicity拟象性:

thedirect/non-arbitrary/non-symbolicrelationbetweenmeaningandform.Thereareresemblancesbetweenthelanguageformandwhattheyreferto.Thatrelationshipiscalledicon.Iconicityexistsinsounds,lexiconsandsyntax.Itisthemotivationbetweenlanguageformsandmeanings.Itisarelationofresemblancebetweenlanguageformandwhattheyreferto.

1.5Functionsoflanguage

AsisproposedbyJacobson,languagehassixfunctions:

1.Referential:

toconveymessageandinformation;

2.Poetic:

toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake;

3.Emotive:

toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions;

4.Conative:

topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties;

5.Phatic:

toestablishcommunionwithothers;

6.Metalingual:

toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings.

Halliday（1994）proposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage.Itmeansthatlanguagehasthreemetafunctions:

1.Ideationalfunction:

toconveynewinformation,tocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearer;

2.Interpersonalfunction:

embodyingalluseoflanguagetoexpresssocialandpersonalrelationships;

3.Textualfunction:

referringtothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretchofspokenandwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakealivingpassagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.

AccordingtoHuZhuanglin,languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:

1.5.1Informative

Theinformativefunctionmeanslanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.

1.5.2Interpersonalfunction

Theinterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.

1.5.3Performative

Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.

1.5.4Emotivefunction

Theemotivefunctionisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.

1.5.5Phaticcommunion

Thephaticcommunionmeanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.

1.5.6Recreationalfunction

Therecreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy’sbabblingorachanter’schanting.

1.5.7Metalingualfunction

Themetalingualfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetotalkaboutitself.E.g.Icanusetheword“book”totalkaboutabook,andIcanalsousetheexpression“thewordbook”totalkaboutthesign“b-o-o-k”itself.

1.6Whatislinguistics?

Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonecommunity,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.

1.7Mainbranchesoflinguistics

1.7.1Phonetics

Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,itincludesthreemainareas:

articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.

1.7.2Phonology

Phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.

1.7.3Morphology

Morphologystudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning–morphemesandword-formationprocesses.

1.7.4Syntax

Syntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.

1.7.5Semantics

Semanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.

1.7.6Pragmatics

Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.

1.8Macrolinguistics

1.8.1Psycholinguistics

1.8.2Sociolinguistics

1.8.3Anthropologicallinguistics

1.8.4Computationallinguistics

1.9Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics

1.9.1Descriptivevs.prescriptive

Tosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtherulestowhichthemembersofalanguage-communityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness.

Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesforthecorrectuseoflanguageandsettlethedisputesoverusageonceandforall.

Forexample,“Don’tsayX.”isaprescriptivecommand;“Peopledon’tsayX.”isadescriptivestatement.Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Inthe18thcentury,allthemainEuropeanlanguageswerestudiedprescriptively.However,modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptivebecausethenatureoflinguisticsasasciencedeterminesitspreoccupationwithdescriptioninsteadofprescription.

1.9.2Synchronicvs.diachronic

Asynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant（usuallyatpresent）asitspointofobservation.Saussure’sdiachronicdescriptionisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.E.g.astudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare’stimewouldbesynchronic,andastudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesincethenwouldbeadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.Thereasonisthatunlessthevariousstateofalanguagearesuccessfullystudieditwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.

1.9.3Langue&parole

Saussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsaslangueandparole.Langueisrelativestableandsystematic,paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints;langueisnotspokenbyanindividual,paroleisalwaysanaturallyoccurringevent.Whatalinguistshoulddo,accordingtoSaussure,istodrawrulesfromamassofconfusedfacts,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethemthesubjectoflinguistics.

1.9.4Competenceandperformance

AccordingtoChomsky,alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledthelinguisticcompetence,andtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationsiscalledperformance.Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchhissupposedcompetence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,Saussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproductandasetofconventionsofacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofmindofeachindividual.SaussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanChomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.

1.9.5Eticvs.emic

Beingeticmeansresearchers’makingfartoomany,aswellasbehaviorallyandinconsequential,differentiations,justasoftenthecasewithphoneticsvs.phonemicsanalysisinlinguisticsproper.

Anemicsetofspeechactsandeventsmustbeonethatisvalidatedasmeaningfulviafinalresourcetothenativemembersofaspeechcommunityratherthanviaappealtotheinvestigator’singenuityorintuitionalone.

Chapter2SpeechSounds

2.1Speechproductionandperception

Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas:

1.Articulatoryphonetics–thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds

2.Acousticphonetics–thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech

3.Auditoryphonetics–thestudyofperceptionofspeechsounds

Mostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.

2.3Segments,divergences,andphonetictranscription

2.3.2Phonetictranscription

InternationalPhoneticAlphabet（IPA）:

thesystemofsymbolsforrepresentingthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguageaccordingtotheprinciplesoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.Thesymbolsconsistoflettersanddiacritics.SomelettersaretakenfromtheRomanalphabet,somearespecialsymbols.

2.4Consonants

2.4.3Mannersofarticulation

1.Stop/plosive:

2.Fricative:

3.（Median）approximant:

4.Lateral（approximant）:

2.4.4Placesofarticulation

1.Bilabial:

Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetwolips.

2.Labiodental:

Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththelowerlipandtheupperfronttee