《西方经济学》英文 版课件.pptx

《西方经济学》英文 版课件.pptx

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,CHAPTERCHECKLIST,Whenyouhavecompletedyourstudyofthischapter,youwillbeableto1Explaintheeffectsoftaxesongoodsandlaboranddeterminewhopaysthetaxes.,Explainhowarentceilingcreatesahousingshortage,inefficiency,andunfairness.Explainhowtheminimumwagecreatesunemployment,inefficiency,andunfairness.,2,3,TaxIncidence,TaxincidenceThedivisionoftheburdenofataxbetweenthebuyerandtheseller.Ifthepricerisesbythefullamountofthetax,thentheburdenofthetaxfallsentirelyonthebuyer.Ifthepricerisesbyalesseramountthanthetax,thentheburdenofthetaxfallspartlyonthebuyerandpartlyontheseller.Ifthepricedoesntchange,thentheburdenofthetaxfallsentirelyontheseller.,Figure7.1showstheeffectsofataxonCDplayers.1.Withnotax,thepriceofaCDplayeris$100and5,000CDplayersaweekarebought.2.A$10taxonCDplayersshiftsthesupplycurvetoS+tax.,Thepricerisesto$105anincreaseof$5aCDplayer.Thequantitydecreasesto2,000CDplayersaweek.5.Sellersreceive$95adecreaseof$5aCDplayer.,6.Thegovernmentcollectstaxrevenueof$20,000aweekthepurplerectangle.Theburdenofthetaxissplitequallybetweenthebuyerandthesellereachpays$5perCDplayer.,TaxIncidenceandElasticitiesofDemandandSupply,Foragivenelasticityofsupply,thebuyerpaysalargershareofthetaxthemoreinelasticisthedemandforthegood.Foragivenelasticityofdemand,thesellerpaysalargershareofthetaxthemoreinelasticisthesupplyofthegood.,TaxIncidenceandElasticityofDemand,PerfectlyInelasticDemand:

BuyerPaysEntireTaxPerfectlyElasticDemand:

SellerPaysEntireTaxFigures7.2（a）and7.2（b）illustratethesetwoextremecases.,Figure7.2（a）showstaxincidenceinamarketwithperfectlyinelasticdemandthemarketforinsulin.Ataxof20adoseraisesthepriceby20,andthebuyerpaysallthetax.,Figure7.2（b）showstaxincidenceinamarketwithperfectlyelasticdemandthemarketforpinkmarkerpens.,Ataxof10apenlowersthepricereceivedbythesellerby10,andthesellerpaysallthetax.,TaxIncidenceandElasticityofSupplyPerfectlyInelasticSupply:

SellerPaysEntireTaxPerfectlyElasticSupply:

BuyerPaysEntireTaxFigures7.2（c）and7.2（d）illustratethesetwoextremecases.,Figure7.2（c）showstaxincidenceinamarketwithperfectlyinelasticsupplythemarketforspringwater.,Ataxof5abottlelowersthepricereceivedbythesellerby5,andthesellerpaysallthetax.,Figure7.2（d）showstaxincidenceinamarketwithperfectlyelasticsupplythemarketforsand.,Ataxof1apoundincreasesthepriceby1apound,andthebuyerpaysallthetax.,TaxesonIncomeandEmployment,Theprincipleswevejuststudiedapplytoalltypesoftaxes.Theyapplytoincometaxesandemploymenttaxes.TheprinciplesalsoimplythatCongresscannotdecidewhowillpayatax.Marketforcesmakethatdecision.Thenextslidesexaminetaxesonlabor.,Withnotaxes,thewagerateis$6.00anhourand4,000peopleareemployed.1.A20percentsocialsecuritytaxonworkersshiftsthesupplycurvetoS+tax.,Thewageratepaidbyemployersrisesto$6.25anhouranincreaseof25centsanhour.3.Thenumberofpeopleemployeddecreasesto3,000.4Workersreceive$5.00anhouradecreaseof$1anhour.,5.Thegovernmentcollectstaxrevenueshownbythepurplerectangle.Workerspaymostofthetaxbecausethesupplyoflaborismoreinelasticthanthedemandforlabor.,Withnotaxes,thewagerateis$6.00anhourand4,000peopleareemployed.1.Apayrolltaxof$1.25anhourshiftsthedemandcurvetoDtax.2.Thewageratefallsto$5anhouradecreaseof$1.00anhour.,3.Thenumberofworkersemployeddecreasesto3,000.4.Employerstotalcostoflaborrisesto$6.25anhourthe$5.00wagerateplusthe$1.25payrolltax.5.Thegovernmentcollectstaxrevenueshownbythepurplerectangle.,YouvenowseenwhyCongresscantdecidewhopaysataxandhowmarketforcesmakethatdecision.,Wenowexaminetheefficiencyoftaxes.,TaxesandEfficiencyAtaxplacesawedgebetweenthebuyersprice（marginalbenefit）andthesellersprice（marginalcost）.Theequilibriumquantityislessthantheefficientquantityandadeadweightlossarises.Theburdenofthetaxexceedsthetaxrevenue.ExcessburdenThedeadweightlossfromataxtheamountbywhichtheburdenofataxexceedsthetaxrevenuereceivedbythegovernment.,7.1TAXES,Figure7.5showstheinefficiencyoftaxes.InFigure7.5（a）,themarketisefficientwithmarginalbenefitequaltomarginalcost.,7.1TAXES,Figure7.5（b）showshowtaxescreateinefficiency.A$10taxshiftsthesupplycurvetoS+tax.Marginalbenefitexceedsmarginalcost.Consumersurplusandproducersurplusshrink.Thegovernmentcollectsitstaxrevenue.Adeadweightlossarises.,7.1TAXES,Thelossofconsumersurplusandproducersurplusistheburdenofthetax,whichequalsthetaxrevenueplusthedeadweightloss.Thedeadweightlossistheexcessburdenofthetax.,7.1TAXES,RentceilingAgovernmentregulationthatmakesitillegaltochargemorethanaspecifiedrentforhousing.PriceceilingThehighestpriceatwhichitislegaltotradeaparticulargood,service,orfactorofproduction.Arentceilingisanexampleofapriceceiling.,ARentCeiling,Figure7.6showsahousingmarket.Thedemandforandsupplyofhousingdeterminetheequilibriumrentof$550amonthandtheequilibriumquantityof4,000unitsofhousing.,Figure7.7showshowarentceilingcreatesashortage.Arentceilingisimposedbelowtheequilibriumrentat$400amonth.Thequantityofhousingsupplieddecreasesto3,000units.Thequantityofhousingdemandedincreasesto6,000units.Ashortageof3,000unitsarises.,Whenarentceilingcreatesahousingshortage,twodevelopmentsoccur:

AblackmarketIncreasedsearchactivityBlackmarketAnillegalmarketthatoperatesalongsideagovernment-regulatedmarket.SearchactivityThetimespentlookingforsomeonewithwhomtodobusiness.,Figure7.8showshowarentceilingcreatesablackmarketandhousingsearch.Witharentceilingof$400amonth:

3,000unitsofhousingareavailable.Someoneiswillingtopay$625amonthforthe3,000thunitofhousing.,3.Blackmarketrentsmightbeashighas$625amonthandresourcesgetusedupincostlysearchactivity.,AreRentCeilingsEfficient?

Witharentceiling,theoutcomeisinefficient.Marginalbenefitexceedsmarginalcost.Producersurplusandconsumersurplusshrink,andadeadweightlossarises.Peoplewhocantfindhousingandlandlordswhocantofferhousingatalowerrentlose.,Figure7.9（a）showsanefficienthousingmarket.Themarketisefficientwithmarginalbenefitequaltomarginalcost.Consumersurplusandproducersurplusareaslargeaspossible.,Figure7.9（b）showstheinefficiencyofarentceiling.Arentceilingrestrictsthequantitysuppliedandmarginalbenefitexceedsmarginalcost.Consumersurplus（greenarea）andproducersurplus（bluearea）shrink,Adeadweightlossarises.Otherresourcesarelostinsearchactivityandevadingandenforcingtherentceilinglaw.Resourceuseisinefficient.,Aretherulesfair?

Aretheresultsfair?

Doesblockingrentadjustmentsavoidscarcity?

Whatmechanismsallocateresourceswhenpricesdontdothejob?

Arethosenon-pricemechanismsfair?

AreRentCeilingsFair?

Currentrentersgainandlobbypoliticians.Morerentersthanlandlords,sorentceilingscantipanelection.,IfRentCeilingsAreSoBad,WhyDoWeHaveThem?

Thelabormarketinfluencesemploymentopportunitiesandwagerates.Figure7.10showsamarketforfast-foodserversThedemandforandsupplyoffast-foodserversdeterminetheequilibriumwagerateof$5anhourandtheequilibriumquantityof5,000serversemployed.,MinimumwagelawAgovernmentregulationthatmakeshiringlaborforlessthanaspecifiedwageillegal.PricefloorThelowestpriceatwhichitislegaltotradeaparticulargood,service,orfactorofproduction.Theminimumwageisanexampleofapricefloor.,TheMinimumWage,Figure7.11showshowaminimumwagecreatesunemployment.Aminimumwageisintroducedat$7anhour.Thequantityoflabordemandeddecreasesto3,000workers.Thequantityoflaborsuppliedincreasesto7,000people.4,000peopleareunemployed.,Figure7.12showshowaminimumwageincreasesjobsearch.Attheminimumwagerateof$7anhour,3,000jobsareavailable.Someoneiswillingtotakethe3,000thjobfor$3anhour.,3.Illegalwageratesmightrangefromjustbelow$7anhourto$3anhour.Peoplearewillingtospendtimeonjobsearchthatisworththeequivalentofloweringtheirwagerateby$4anhour.,Thefirmssurplusandworkerssurplusshrink,andadeadweightlossarises.Firmsthatcutbackemploymentandbypeoplewhocantfindjobsatthehigherwageratelose.Thetotallossexceedsthedeadweightlossbecauseresourcesgetusedincostlyjob-searchactivity.,IstheMinimumWageEfficient?

Figure7.13（a）showsanefficientlabormarket.1.Atthemarketequilibrium,themarginalbenefitoflabortofirmsequalsthemarginalcostofworking.2.Thefirmsandworkerssurplusesareaslargeaspossible.,Figure7.13（b）showsaninefficientlabormarketwithaminimumwage.1.Theminimumwagerestrictsthequantitydemanded.2.Thefirmssurplusandtheworkerssurplusshrinks.,3.Adeadweightlossarises.4.OtherresourcesareusedupinjobsearchactivityTheoutcomeisinefficient.,Istherulefair?

Istheresultfair?

Ifthewageratedoesntallocatelabor,whatdoes?

Arenon-wageallocationmechanismsfair?

IstheMinimumWageFair?

Theeffectsofminimumwageonemploymentmightbesmall.Whatwouldmaketheeffectsonemploymentsmall?

Laborunionsmightlobbyforaminimumwage:

why?

IftheMinimumWageIsSoBad,WhyDoWeHaveIt?