东西方文化比较复习资料.docx

东西方文化比较复习资料.docx

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东西方文化比较复习资料

Whatisculture?

☐Thewordculturehasmanydifferentmeanings. 

☐Forsomeitreferstoanappreciationofgoodliterature,music,art,andfood. 

☐Forabiologist,itislikelytobeacolonyofbacteriaorothermicroorganismsgrowinginanutrientmediuminalaboratory. 

☐However,foranthropologistsandotherbehavioralscientists,cultureisthefullrangeoflearnedhumanbehaviourpatterns. 

☐ThetermwasfirstusedinthiswaybythepioneerEnglishAnthropologistEdwardB.Tylorinhisbook,PrimitiveCulture,publishedin1871. Tylorsaidthatcultureis"thatcomplexwholewhichincludesknowledge,belief,art,law,morals,custom,andanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety." Ofcourse,itisnotlimitedtomen. Womenpossessandcreateitaswell. SinceTylor'stime,theconceptofculturehasbecomethecentralfocusofanthropology.

UnderstandingCulture

☐Generallyspeaking,Cultureisthewayoflife,withoutitwecan’tsurviveinsociety.

☐Membersofaparticularculturehavecertainthingsincommon.

☐Culturecanbeseenassharedknowledge,whatpeopleneedtoknowinordertoactappropriatelyinagivenculture.

Individualism&Collectivism

•Identityamongcollectivistsisdefinedbyrelationshipsandgroupmemberships.Individualistsbaseidentityonwhattheyownandtheirexperiences.

•Incollectivistculturesthecollectiveisresponsibleforthewrongdoingofoneofitsmembers;inindividualistcultures,itissolelytheindividualwhoisresponsible.

•Historyismoreimportanttocollectiviststhantoindividualists.Collectivistsseethemselvesaslinksinalongchainthatconsistsofancestorsanddescendants.Forindividualists,theindividualisinthecenterofthestage—whatcomesbeforeandafterismoreorlessirrelevant.

Individualismis：

1）asocialpatternthatconsistsoflooselylinkedindividualswhoviewthemselvesasindependentofcollectives;

2）areprimarilymotivatedbytheirownpreferences,needs,rights,andthecontactstheyhaveestablishedwithothers;

3）giveprioritytotheirpersonalgoalsoverthegoalsofothers;

4）emphasizerationalanalysesoftheadvantagesanddisadvantagestoassociatingwithothers.

Collectivismis:

1）asocialpatternconsistingofcloselylinkedindividualswhoseethemselvesaspartsofoneormorecollectives（family,co-workers,tribe,nation）;

2）areprimarilymotivatedbythenormsof,anddutiesimposedby,thosecollectives;

3）arewillingtogiveprioritytothegoalsofthesecollectivesovertheirownpersonalgoals;

4）emphasizetheirconnectednesstomembersofthesecultures.

Gift-givingintheWest

•“Ingeneral,westernersdonotusegiftstoincurorrepaysocialobligations.”

•Whenarevaluablegiftsappropriate?

•Valuablegiftsareanappropriatewaytoshowgratitudeonlyforatrulysignificantfavor,andonlyinsituationswhereitwillnotlooklikethegift-giveristryingtobuyfavor.

•ShouldIopenitnow?

•Oneinterpretationofthispracticeofnotopeninggiftsuponreceivingthemisthis:

thereceiverispreservingthefaceofthegiverbyavoidinganypossibilityofevaluatingthegiftinthepresenceofthegiverandothers.

•“重义轻利”

•“受人财不以为富”——《礼记》

•李敖说：

“中国的规矩是礼物当面不打开，所以你送一盒砖头给人，人家也不知道。

”

Interpretation

•Communicationisalwaysaninterpretiveprocess.Wheneverpeoplecommunicate,theymustinterpretthesymbolicbehaviorsofothersandassignsignificancetosomeofthosebehaviorsinordertocreateameaningfulaccountoftheother’sactions.Thisideasuggeststhateachpersoninacommunicationtransactionmaynotnecessarilyinterpretthemessageinexactlythesameway.Indeed,duringepisodesinvolvinginterculturalcommunicationthelikelihoodishighthatpeoplewillinterpretthemeaningofmessagesdifferently.

Interpretationisarapid,automaticprocess

•Theinferenceswedrawinordinaryconversation（aswellasinreadingwrittentext）aredrawnveryquickly.Mostresearcherssuggestthatsuchinferencesmustbedrawneverytimeitbecomespossibleforspeakerstoexchangeturns,andthatsuchoccasionsoccurapproximatelyonceeverysecondinnormalconversation.

•Mostofthetime,peopleoftenconflatetheprocessofperceivingandinterpreting.Whenwecommunicatewithothers,wetypicallyinterpretmessagesbyattachingmeaningdirectlytothem.Wedonotstoptodescribewhatwesaworheardbeforeweinterpretit.Rather,weinterpretmessagesasweperceivethem.

Perception

•Selectiveexposure:

•Q:

Didpeoplereadonlytheadsaboutthecartheyhadjustpurchasedordidtheyalsoreadadsforcarstheyhadconsideredinitiallybutdidnotbuy?

•A:

Peopleexposethemselvestoinformationthatwouldreinforcetheirdecisiontobuyaparticularcar.

•Selectiveattention:

•Wecanallrememberhavingbeenveryhungryandfoundourselvesfocusingonthefoodwordsandpicturesinamovie,orbeenworriedaboutanexamandviewedeverythinginrelationtothesubjectareainwhichwewerebeingtested,oranxiousaboutafamilymember’shealthandnotedonlythemedicalshowsontelevision.

•Selectiveretention:

•Doyoustillrememberthenamesofanyofourelementaryschoolteachers?

Ifwedo,weprobablylikedthoseteachersandworkedwellintheirclassrooms.

•

PerceptioninInterculturalcommunication

•Interculturalcommunicatornormallyisconfrontedwithpeoplewhodonotsharehisorherperceptionsoftheexternalworld,andwhomayrespondtothatworldinamannerthatisoftenhardtounderstand.

•InEngland,apersonwithgoodmannersisperceivedassomeonewithnonaggressivebehaviorinaninterpersonalsetting—someonewhodoesnotspeaktostrangers.Inothercultures,suchastheArab,Italian,orJewish,aggressivebehaviorduringinteractionisnormalandisperceivedashighlydesirablewhileareservedattitudeisasignofbadmanners.

Generalization&Stereotype

•Whatistherelationshipbetweengeneralizationandstereotype?

•Whyisstereotypedangerousinunderstandinganotherculture?

•Stereotypeisaformofgeneralizationaboutsomegroupofpeople,orameansoforganizingimagesintofixedandsimplecategoriesthatareusedtostandfortheentirecollectionofpeople.

•Stereotypeisawayofthinkingthatdoesnotacknowledgeinternaldifferencewithinagroup,anddoesnotacknowledgeexceptionstoitsgeneralrulesorprinciples.

WhyDoHumanBeingsStereotype?

•Humanbeingshaveapsychologicalneedtocategorizeandclassify.

•Itisimpossibleforhumanbeingstopersonallyexperienceeverything,andasameasureofefficiencytheydevelopsimplifiedperceptionsbasedonafewoutstandingcharacteristics.

WhyStereotypesproblematic?

•1）Stereotypesgiveusafalsesenseofunderstandingofourcommunicationpartners.

•2）Stereotypesresultinoverestimatesofthelinkbetweenthecategoryandtheattributesofthatcategory.Oncethestereotypeisinplace,itinfluenceshowweprocessinformation.Weselectinformationthatfitsthestereotypeandrejectinformationthatisinconsistentwithit.Asaresult,weprocessveryeasilyinformationthatispositiveaboutthein-groupandnegativeabouttheout-group.Wealsorememberinformationthatisconsistentwithourstereotypesbetterthanotherinformation.

•3）Stereotypestendtodecreaseourinformationsearch.Thismakesourthinkinglessaccurateandourjudgmentsanddecisionspoor.

•4）Stereotypesoftenleadtoself-fulfillingprophecies—peopleseeinforeignerswhattheyexpecttosee.

•5）Stereotypesaboutout-groupsmostoftenarepredominantlynegative,andconsequentlyleadtoexpectationsthatarelikelytoorganizeourinteractionwithapreviouslyunknownmemberoftheout-groupinwaysthatpromotehostility,rejection,orconflict.Ournegativestereotypeswillleadustoexpectnegativebehaviorsfromthatstranger.

“MindfulStereotyping”

•Thelinebetweenstereotypesandgeneralizationsisverythin.Giventhatatleastsomedegreeofstereotypingisprobablyinevitable,thequestionbecomeshowoneshouldstereotypewell.

•“mindfulstereotyping”—Ting-Toomeythinksthattherearedifferencesbetween“mindlessstereotypingandmindfulstereotyping”.Thefirstbeingnegative,overexaggerated,ladenwithbiasandprovidingtypecasts,andthelaterconsistingofthoughtfulcomparisonsbetweenonesselfandothers,placedincontext,respectingsimilaritiesanddifferencewithanopenmindtonewinformation.

•1）beingawarethatwearestereotyping;

•2）Assumingstereotypesare“bestfirstguesses”,not“definiteanswers”;

•3）Usingloose,interpretivecategoriesratherthanevaluativecategories;

•4）Qualifyingourperceptionsandinterpretations;

•5）Beingopentonewinformation,readytoredefinecategories;

•6）Gettingtoknowtheidentitiesofindividualswithinthegroup;

•7）Recognizing“meaningfulandvaliddifferences”betweenourgroupandtheirs.

Enculturation&Acculturation

•Enculturationisthesocializationprocessyougothroughtoadapttoyoursociety.Whenyougrowupinoneculture,youlearnonewayofclassifying,coding,prioritizing,andjustifyingreality.Alltheactivitiesoflearningone’sculturearecalledenculturation.

•Acculturation,orculturaladaptation,referstoanindividual’slearningandadoptingthenormsandvaluesofthenewhostculture.Theindividualmustfindanewsourceoflivelihoodandbuildanewlife.Thisadaptingtothenewhostcultureiscalledacculturation.

•a. Assimilation:

isaprocessinwhichmembersofanethnicgroupareabsorbedintothedominantculture,losingtheircultureintheprocess.

•b.  Integration:

isaprocessofdesiringahighlevelofinteractionwiththehostculturewhilemain